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BRITISH MONARCHY AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS


BRITISH MONARCHY AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

The Institute of Ecology, Linguistics and Low

Degree work

«BRITISH MONARCHY

AND ITS INFLUENCE

UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS»

Dunaeva Nina

Moscow, 2003

Contents

Part One

INTRODUCTION

The United kingdom of Great Britain and Nothern Ireland 4

Direct meaning of the word «monarchy» 6

The British constitutional monarchy 7

Part Two

HISTORY OF THE MONARCHY

Kings and Queens of England 9

The Anglo-Saxon Kings 9

The Normans 23

The Angevins 30

The Plantagenets 33

The Lancastrians 42

The Yorkists 46

The Tudors 48

The Stuarts 58

The Commonwealth Interregnum 63

The Hanoverians 75

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 85

The House of Windsor 87

Part Three

THE MONARCHY TODAY

The Queen’s role 91

Queen’s role in the modern State 91

Queen and Commonwealth 91

Royal visits 92

The Queen’s working day 92

Ceremonies and pageantry 92

The Queen’s ceremonial duties 93

Royal pageantry and traditions 93

Royal succession 93

The Royal Household 93

Royal Household departments 94

Recruitment 94

Anniversaries 95

Royal finances 95

Head of State expenditure 2000-01 95

Sources of funding 96

Financial arrangements of The Prince of Wales 96

Finances of the other members of the Royal Family 96

Taxation 97

Royal assets 97

Symbols 98

National anthem 98

Royal Warrants 99

Bank notes and coinage 100

Stamps 102

Coats of Arms 103

Great Seal 104

Flags 105

Crowns and jewels 105

Transport 105

Cars 106

Carriages 107

The Royal Train 108

Royal air travel 109

Part Four

THE ROYAL FAMILY

Members of the Royal Family 111

HM The Queen 111

HRH The Duke of Edinburgh 111

HRH The Prince of Wales and family 112

HRH The Duke of York 112

TRH The Earl and Countess of Wessex 112

HRH Princess Royal 112

HRH Princess Alice 113

TRH The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester 113

TRH The Duke and Duchess of Kent 113

TRH Prince and Princess Michael of Kent 114

HRH Princess Alexandra 114

Memorial Plaque

HM Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother 115

HRH The Princess Margaret 115

Diana, Princess of Wales 115

Part Five

ART AND RESIDENCES

The Royal Collection 116

About the Royal Collection 116

The Royal Collection Trust 117

Royal Collection Enterprises 117

Publishing 118

Royal Residences 118

Royal Collection Galleries 118

Loans 119

The Royal Residences 119

About the Royal Residences 119

Buckingham Palace 120

The Queen’s Gallery, Buckingham Palace 120

The Royal Mews 121

Windsor Castle 121

Frogmore 122

The Palace of Holyroodhouse 122

Balmoral Castle 123

Sandringham House 123

St James’s Palace 124

Kensington Palace 124

Historic residences 124

Bibliography 126

UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

[pic]

Sovereign: Queen Elizabeth II (1952)

Government: The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and

parliamentary democracy, with a queen and a Parliament that has two houses:

the House of Lords, with 574 life peers, 92 hereditary peers, 26 bishops,

and the House of Commons, which has 651 popularly elected members. Supreme

legislative power is vested in Parliament, which sits for five years unless

sooner dissolved. The House of Lords was stripped of most of its power in

1911, and now its main function is to revise legislation. In Nov. 1999

hundreds of hereditary peers were expelled in an effort to make the body

more democratic. The executive power of the Crown is exercised by the

cabinet, headed by the prime minister.

Prime Minister: Tony Blair (1997)

Area: 94,525 sq mi (244,820 sq km)

Population (2003 est.): 60,094,648 (growth rate: 0.1%); birth rate:

11.0/1000; infant mortality rate: 5.3/1000; density per sq mi: 636

Capital and largest city (2000 est.): London, 11,800,000 (metro. area)

Other large cities: Birmingham, 1,009,100; Leeds, 721,800; Glasgow,

681,470; Liverpool, 479,000; Bradford, 477,500; Edinburgh, 441,620;

Manchester, 434,600; Bristol, 396,600

Monetary unit: Pound sterling (£)

Languages: English, Welsh, Scots Gaelic

Ethnicity/race: English 81.5%; Scottish 9.6%; Irish 2.4%; Welsh 1.9%;

Ulster 1.8%; West Indian, Indian, Pakistani, and other 2.8%

Religions: Church of England (established church), Church of Wales

(disestablished), Church of Scotland (established church—Presbyterian),

Church of Ireland (disestablished), Roman Catholic, Methodist,

Congregational, Baptist, Jewish

Literacy rate: 99% (1978)

Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2000 est.): $1.36 trillion; per capita $22,800.

Real growth rate: 3%. Inflation: 2.4%. Unemployment: 5.5%. Arable land:

25%. Agriculture: cereals, oilseed, potatoes, vegetables; cattle, sheep,

poultry; fish. Labor force: 29.2 million (1999); agriculture 1%, industry

19%, services 80% (1996 est.). Industries: machine tools, electric power

equipment, automation equipment, railroad equipment, shipbuilding,

aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, electronics and communications

equipment, metals, chemicals, coal, petroleum, paper and paper products,

food processing, textiles, clothing, and other consumer goods. Natural

resources: coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt,

clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica, arable land. Exports: $282 billion

(f.o.b., 2000): manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals; food, beverages,

tobacco. Imports: $324 billion (f.o.b., 2000): manufactured goods,

machinery, fuels; foodstuffs. Major trading partners: EU, U.S., Japan.

Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 34.878 million (1997);

mobile cellular: 13 million (yearend 1998). Radio broadcast stations: AM

219, FM 431, shortwave 3 (1998). Radios: 84.5 million (1997). Television

broadcast stations: 228 (plus 3,523 repeaters) (1995). Televisions: 30.5

million (1997). Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 245 (2000). Internet

users: 19.47 million (2000).

Transportation: Railways: total: 16,878 km (1996). Highways: total: 371,603

km; paved: 371,603 km (including 3,303 km of expressways); unpaved: 0 km

(1998 est.). Waterways: 3,200 km. Ports and harbors: Aberdeen, Belfast,

Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Falmouth, Felixstowe, Glasgow, Grangemouth, Hull,

Leith, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Peterhead, Plymouth, Portsmouth,

Scapa Flow, Southampton, Sullom Voe, Tees, Tyne. Airports: 489 (2000 est.).

International disputes: Northern Ireland issue with Ireland (historic peace

agreement signed 10 April 1998); Gibraltar issue with Spain; Argentina

claims Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); Argentina claims South Georgia

and the South Sandwich Islands; Mauritius and the Seychelles claim Chagos

Archipelago (UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory); Rockall

continental shelf dispute involving Denmark and Iceland; territorial claim

in Antarctica (British Antarctic Territory) overlaps Argentine claim and

partially overlaps Chilean claim; disputes with Iceland, Denmark, and

Ireland over the Faroe Islands continental shelf boundary outside 200 NM.

DIRECT MEANING OF THE WORD «MONARCHY»

Monarchy, form of government in which sovereignty is vested in a single

person whose right to rule is generally hereditary and who is empowered to

remain in office for life. The power of this sovereign may vary from the

absolute to that strongly limited by custom or constitution. Monarchy has

existed since the earliest history of humankind and was often established

during periods of external threat or internal crisis because it provided a

more efficient focus of power than aristocracy or democracy, which tended

to diffuse power. Most monarchies appear to have been elective originally,

but dynasties early became customary. In primitive times, divine descent of

the monarch was often claimed. Deification was general in ancient Egypt,

the Middle East, and Asia, and it was also practiced during certain periods

in ancient Greece and Rome. A more moderate belief arose in Christian

Europe in the Middle Ages; it stated that the monarch was the appointed

agent of divine will. This was symbolized by the coronation of the king by

a bishop or the pope, as in the Holy Roman Empire. Although theoretically

at the apex of feudal power, the medieval monarchs were in fact weak and

dependent upon the nobility for much of their power. During the Renaissance

and after, there emerged “new monarchs” who broke the power of the nobility

and centralized the state under their own rigid rule. Notable examples are

Henry VII and Henry VIII of England and Louis XIV of France. The 16th and

17th cent. mark the height of absolute monarchy, which found its

theoretical justification in the doctrine of divine right. However, even

the powerful monarchs of the 17th cent. were somewhat limited by custom and

constitution as well as by the delegation of powers to strong

bureaucracies. Such limitations were also felt by the “benevolent despots”

of the 18th cent. Changes in intellectual climate, in the demands made upon

government in a secular and commercially expanding society, and in the

social structure, as the bourgeoisie became increasingly powerful,

eventually weakened the institution of monarchy in Europe. The Glorious

Revolution in England (1688) and the French Revolution (1789) were

important landmarks in the decline and limitation of monarchical power.

Throughout the 19th cent. Royal power was increasingly reduced by

constitutional provisions and parliamentary incursions. In the 20th cent.,

monarchs have generally become symbols of national unity, while real power

has been transferred to constitutional assemblies. Over the past 200 years

democratic self-government has been established and extended to such an

extent that a true functioning monarchy is a rare occurrence in both East

and West. Among the few remaining are Brunei, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia.

Notable constitutional monarchies include Belgium, Denmark, Great Britain,

Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Thailand.

Constitutional monarchy: System of government in which a monarch has

agreed to share power with a constitutionally organized government. The

monarch may remain the de facto head of state or may be a purely ceremonial

head. The constitution allocates the rest of the government's power to the

legislature and judiciary. Britain became a constitutional monarchy under

the Whigs; other constitutional monarchies include Belgium, Cambodia,

Jordan, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and Thailand.

THE BRITISH CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

"The British Constitutional Monarchy was the consequence of the Glorious

Revolution of 1688, and was enshrined in the Bill of Rights of 1689.

Whereby William and Mary in accepting the throne, had to consent to govern

'according to the statutes in parliament on."

A monarch does not have to curry favour for votes from any section of

the community.

A monarch is almost invariably more popular than an Executive President,

who can be elected by less than 50% of the electorate and may therefore

represent less than half the people. In the 1995 French presidential

election the future President Chirac was not the nation's choice in the

first round of voting. In Britain, governments are formed on the basis of

parliamentary seats won. In the 1992 General Election the Conservative

Prime Minister took the office with only 43% of votes cast in England,

Scotland and Wales. The Queen however, as hereditary Head of State, remains

the representative of the whole nation.

Elected presidents are concerned more with their own political futures

and power, and as we have seen (in Brazil for example), may use their

temporary tenure to enrich themselves. Monarchs are not subject to the

influences which corrupt short-term presidents. A monarch looks back on

centuries of history and forward to the well being of the entire nation

under his/her heir. Elected presidents in their nature devote much energy

to undoing the achievements of their forebears in order to strengthen the

position of their successors.

A long reigning monarch can put enormous experience at the disposal of

transient political leaders. Since succeeding her father in 1952 Queen

Elizabeth has had a number of Prime Ministers, the latest of whom were not

even in Parliament at the time of her accession. An experienced monarch can

act as a brake on over ambitious or misguided politicians, and encorage

others who are less confident. The reality is often the converse of the

theory: the monarch is frequently the Prime Minister's best adviser.

Monarchs, particularly those in Europe are part of an extended Royal

Family, facilitating links between their nations. As Burke observed,

nations touch at their summits. A recent example of this was the attendance

of so many members of Royal Families at the 50th birthday celebrations for

Sweden’s King Carl XVI Gustav. Swedish newspapers reported that this this

was a much better indication of their closeness to the rest of Europe than

any number of treaties, protocols or directives from the European Union.

A monarch is trained from Birth for the position of Head of State and

even where, as after the abdication of Edward VIII, a younger brother

succeeds, he too has enormous experience of his country, its people and its

government. The people know who will succeed, and this certainly gives a

nation invaluable continuity and stability. This also explains why it is

rare for an unsuitable person to become King. There are no expensive

elections as in the US where, as one pro-Monarchist American says, "we have

to elect a new ' Royal Family' every four years." In the French system the

President may be a member of one party, while the Prime Minister is from

another, which only leads to confused governement. In a monarchy there is

no such confusion, for the monarch does not rule in conflict with

government but reigns over the whole nation.

In ceremonial presidencies the Head of State is often a former politician

tainted by, and still in thrall to, his former political life and

loyalties, or an academic or retired diplomat who can never have the same

prestige as a monarch, and who is frequently little known inside the

country, and almost totally unknown outside it. For example, ask a German

why is Britain's Head of State and a high proportion will know it is Queen

Elizabeth II. Ask a Briton, or any Non- German, who is Head of State of

Germany? , and very few will be able to answer correctly.

Aided by his immediate family, a monarch can carry out a range of duties

and public engagements - ceremonial, charitable, environmental etc. which

an Executive President would never have time to do, and to which a

ceremonial President would not add lustre.

A monarch and members of a Royal Family can become involved in a wide

range of issues which are forbidden to politicians. All parties have vested

interests which they cannot ignore. Vernon Bogdanor says in ' The Monarchy

and the Constitution' - «A politician must inevitably be a spokesperson for

only part of the nation, not the whole. A politician's motives will always

be suspected. Members of the Royal Family, by contrast, because of their

symbolic position, are able to speak to a much wider constituency than can

be commanded by even the most popular political leader." In a Republic,

then, who is there to speak out on issues where the 'here today, gone

tomorrow' government is constrained from criticising its backers, even

though such criticism is in the national interest.

All nations are made up of families, and it's natural that a family

should be at a nation's head.

While the question of Divine Right is now obsolescent, the fact that

"there's such divinity doth hedge a King" remains true, and it is

interesting to note that even today Kings are able to play a role in the

spiritual life of a nation which presidents seem unable to fulfil.

It has been demonstrated that, even ignoring the enormous cost of

presidential elections, a monarch as head of state is no more expensive

than a president. In Britain many costs, such as the upkeep of the Royal

residencies, are erroneosly thought to be uniquely attributable to the

monarchy, even though the preservation of our heritage would still be

undertaken if the county were a republic! The US government has criticised

the cost to the Brazilian people of maintaining their president.

Even Royal Families which are not reigning are dedicated to the service

of their people, and continue to be regarded as the symbol of the nation's

continuity. Prominent examples are H.R.H. the Duke of Braganza in Portugal

and H.R.H. the County of Paris in France. Royal Families forced to live in

exile, such as the Yugoslav and Romanian, are often promoters of charities

formed to help their countries.

KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND

The history of the English Crown up to the Union of the Crowns in 1603 is

long and varied. The concept of a single ruler unifying different tribes

based in England developed in the eighth and ninth centuries in figures

such as Offa and Alfred the Great, who began to create centralised systems

of government. Following the Norman Conquest, the machinery of government

developed further, producing long-lived national institutions including

Parliament.

The Middle Ages saw several fierce contests for the Crown, culminating in

the Wars of the Roses, which lasted for nearly a century. The conflict was

finally ended with the advent of the Tudors, the dynasty which produced

some of England's most successful rulers and a flourishing cultural

Renaissance. The end of the Tudor line with the death of the 'Virgin Queen'

in 1603 brought about the Union of the Crowns with Scotland.

THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS

In the Dark Ages during the fifth and sixth centuries, communities of

peoples in Britain inhabited homelands with ill-defined borders. Such

communities were organised and led by chieftains or kings. Following the

final withdrawal of the Roman legions from the provinces of Britannia in

around 408 AD these small kingdoms were left to preserve their own order

and to deal with invaders and waves of migrant peoples such as the Picts

from beyond Hadrian's Wall, the Scots from Ireland and Germanic tribes from

the continent. (King Arthur, a larger-than-life figure, has often been

cited as a leader of one or more of these kingdoms during this period,

although his name now tends to be used as a symbol of British resistance

against invasion.)

The invading communities overwhelmed or adapted existing kingdoms and

created new ones - for example, the Angles in Mercia and Northumbria. Some

British kingdoms initially survived the onslaught, such as Strathclyde,

which was wedged in the north between Pictland and the new Anglo-Saxon

kingdom of Northumbria.

By 650 AD, the British Isles were a patchwork of many kingdoms founded

from native or immigrant communities and led by powerful chieftains or

kings. In their personal feuds and struggles between communities for

control and supremacy, a small number of kingdoms became dominant: Bernicia

and Deira (which merged to form Northumbria in 651 AD), Lindsey, East

Anglia, Mercia, Wessex and Kent. Until the late seventh century, a series

of warrior-kings in turn established their own personal authority over

other kings, usually won by force or through alliances and often cemented

by dynastic marriages.

According to the later chronicler Bede, the most famous of these kings

was Ethelberht, king of Kent (reigned c.560-616), who married Bertha, the

Christian daughter of the king of Paris, and who became the first English

king to be converted to Christianity (St Augustine's mission from the Pope

to Britain in 597 during Ethelberht's reign prompted thousands of such

conversions). Ethelberht's law code was the first to be written in any

Germanic language and included 90 laws. His influence extended both north

and south of the river Humber: his nephew became king of the East Saxons

and his daughter married king Edwin of Northumbria (died 633).

In the eighth century, smaller kingdoms in the British Isles continued to

fall to more powerful kingdoms, which claimed rights over whole areas and

established temporary primacies: Dalriada in Scotland, Munster and Ulster

in Ireland. In England, Mercia and later Wessex came to dominate, giving

rise to the start of the monarchy.

Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period the succession was frequently

contested, by both the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and leaders of the settling

Scandinavian communities. The Scandinavian influence was to prove strong in

the early years. It was the threat of invading Vikings which galvanised

English leaders into unifying their forces, and, centuries later, the

Normans who successfully invaded in 1066 were themselves the descendants of

Scandinavian 'Northmen'.

HOUSE OF WESSEX AND ENGLAND

802 – 1066

EGBERT = Redburga

(802–839)

ETHELWULF = Osburga dau. of Oslac of Isle of

Wight

(839–855)

ETHELBERHT ALFRED

the Great = Ealhswith

ETHELBALD (860–866)

ETHELRED (871–899)

(855–860)

(866–871)

Ecgwyn =

EDWARD THE ELDER= Edgiva

(899–924)

ATHELSTAN

(924–939)

Elgiva = EDMUND I

EDRED

(939–946)

(946–955)

EDWY Ethelfleda = EDGAR = Elfrida,

dau. of Ordgar, Ealdorman of East Anglia

(955–959) dau. of (959–975)

Ealdorman

Ordmaer

EDWARD THE MARTYR

(975–979)

Elfgifu = ETHELRED II THE

UNREADY = Emma

(979–1016)

(later

(deposed 1013/14)

married

CANUTE)

EDMUND II IRONSIDE

(Apr.–Nov.1016)

Godwin = Gytha

EDWARD THE = Eadgyth

HAROLD II

CONFESSOR (Edith)

(Jan.–Oct.1066)

(1042–1066)

EGBERT (802-39 AD)

[pic]

Known as the first King of All England, he was forced into exile at the

court of Charlemagne, by the powerful Offa, King of Mercia. Egbert returned

to England in 802 and was recognized as king of Wessex. He defeated the

rival Mercians at the battle of Ellendun in 825. In 829, the Northumbrians

accepted his overlordship and he was proclaimed "Bretwalda" or sole ruler

of Britain.

ÆTHELWULF (839-55 AD)

[pic]Æthelwulf was the son of Egbert and a sub-king of Kent. He assumed

the throne of Wessex upon his father's death in 839. His reign is

characterized by the usual Viking invasions and repulsions common to all

English rulers of the time, but the making of war was not his chief claim

to fame. Æthelwulf is remembered, however dimly, as a highly religious man

who cared about the establishment and preservation of the church. He was

also a wealthy man and controlled vast resources. Out of these resources,

he gave generously, to Rome and to religious houses that were in need.

He was an only child, but had fathered five sons, by his first wife,

Osburga. He recognized that there could be difficulties with contention

over the succession. He devised a scheme which would guarantee (insofar as

it was possible to do so) that each child would have his turn on the throne

without having to worry about rival claims from his siblings. Æthelwulf

provided that the oldest living child would succeed to the throne and would

control all the resources of the crown, without having them divided among

the others, so that he would have adequate resources to rule. That he was

able to provide for the continuation of his dynasty is a matter of record,

but he was not able to guarantee familial harmony with his plan. This is

proved by what we know of the foul plottings of his son, Æthelbald, while

Æthelwulf was on pilgrimage to Rome in 855.

Æthelwulf was a wise and capable ruler, whose vision made possible the

beneficial reign of his youngest son, Alfred the Great.

ÆTHELBALD (855-8 (subking), 858-60)

While his father, Æthelwulf, was on pilgrimage to Rome in 855, Æthelbald

plotted with the Bishop of Sherbourne and the ealdorman of Somerset against

him. The specific details of the plot are unknown, but upon his return from

Rome, Æthelwulf found his direct authority limited to the sub-kingdom of

Kent, while Æthelbald controlled Wessex.

Æthelwulf died in 858, and full control passed to Æthelbald. Perhaps

Æthelbald's premature power grab was occasioned by impatience, or greed, or

lack of confidence in his father's succession plans. Whatever the case, he

did not live long to enjoy it. He died in 860, passing the throne to his

brother, Æthelbert, just as Æthelwulf had planned.

ÆTHELBERT (860-66 AD)

[pic]Very little is known about Æthelbert, who took his rightful place in

the line of succession to the throne of Wessex at around 30 years of age.

Like all other rulers of his day, he had to contend with Viking raids on

his territories and even had to battle them in his capital city of

Winchester. Apparently, his military leadership was adequate, since, on

this occasion, the Vikings were cut off on their retreat to the coast and

were slaughtered, according to a contemporary source, in a "bloody battle."

ÆTHELRED I (866-71 AD)

Anglo-Saxon king of Wessex, and son of King Æthelwulf, who ruled England

during a time of great pressure from the invading Danes. He was an affable

man, a devoutly religious man and the older brother of Alfred the Great,

his second-in-command in the resistance against the invaders. Together,

they defeated the Danish kings Bagseg and Halfdan at the battle of Ashdown

in 870.

ALFRED «THE GREAT» (871-899)

Born at Wantage, Berkshire, in 849, Alfred was the fifth son of

Aethelwulf, king of the West Saxons. At their father's behest and by mutual

agreement, Alfred's elder brothers succeeded to the kingship in turn,

rather than endanger the kingdom by passing it to under-age children at a

time when the country was threatened by worsening Viking raids from

Denmark.

Since the 790s, the Vikings had been using fast mobile armies, numbering

thousands of men embarked in shallow-draught longships, to raid the coasts

and inland waters of England for plunder. Such raids were evolving into

permanent Danish settlements; in 867, the Vikings seized York and

established their own kingdom in the southern part of Northumbria. The

Vikings overcame two other major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, East Anglia and

Mercia, and their kings were either tortured to death or fled. Finally, in

870 the Danes attacked the only remaining independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom,

Wessex, whose forces were commanded by King Aethelred and his younger

brother Alfred. At the battle of Ashdown in 871, Alfred routed the Viking

army in a fiercely fought uphill assault. However, further defeats followed

for Wessex and Alfred's brother died.

As king of Wessex at the age of 21, Alfred (reigned 871-99) was a

strongminded but highly strung battle veteran at the head of remaining

resistance to the Vikings in southern England. In early 878, the Danes led

by King Guthrum seized Chippenham in Wiltshire in a lightning strike and

used it as a secure base from which to devastate Wessex. Local people

either surrendered or escaped (Hampshire people fled to the Isle of Wight),

and the West Saxons were reduced to hit and run attacks seizing provisions

when they could. With only his royal bodyguard, a small army of thegns (the

king's followers) and Aethelnoth ealdorman of Somerset as his ally, Alfred

withdrew to the Somerset tidal marshes in which he had probably hunted as a

youth. (It was during this time that Alfred, in his preoccupation with the

defence of his kingdom, allegedly burned some cakes which he had been asked

to look after; the incident was a legend dating from early twelfth century

chroniclers.)

A resourceful fighter, Alfred reassessed his strategy and adopted the

Danes' tactics by building a fortified base at Athelney in the Somerset

marshes and summoning a mobile army of men from Wiltshire, Somerset and

part of Hampshire to pursue guerrilla warfare against the Danes. In May

878, Alfred's army defeated the Danes at the battle of Edington. According

to his contemporary biographer Bishop Asser, 'Alfred attacked the whole

pagan army fighting ferociously in dense order, and by divine will

eventually won the victory, made great slaughter among them, and pursued

them to their fortress (Chippenham) ... After fourteen days the pagans were

brought to the extreme depths of despair by hunger, cold and fear, and they

sought peace'. This unexpected victory proved to be the turning point in

Wessex's battle for survival.

Realising that he could not drive the Danes out of the rest of England,

Alfred concluded peace with them in the treaty of Wedmore. King Guthrum was

converted to Christianity with Alfred as godfather and many of the Danes

returned to East Anglia where they settled as farmers. In 886, Alfred

negotiated a partition treaty with the Danes, in which a frontier was

demarcated along the Roman Watling Street and northern and eastern England

came under the jurisdiction of the Danes - an area known as 'Danelaw'.

Alfred therefore gained control of areas of West Mercia and Kent which had

been beyond the boundaries of Wessex. To consolidate alliances against the

Danes, Alfred married one of his daughters, Aethelflaed, to the ealdorman

of Mercia -Alfred himself had married Eahlswith, a Mercian noblewoman - and

another daughter, Aelfthryth, to the count of Flanders, a strong naval

power at a time when the Vikings were settling in eastern England.

The Danish threat remained, and Alfred reorganised the Wessex defences in

recognition that efficient defence and economic prosperity were

interdependent. First, he organised his army (the thegns, and the existing

militia known as the fyrd) on a rota basis, so he could raise a 'rapid

reaction force' to deal with raiders whilst still enabling his thegns and

peasants to tend their farms.

Second, Alfred started a building programme of well-defended settlements

across southern England. These were fortified market places ('borough'

comes from the Old English burh, meaning fortress); by deliberate royal

planning, settlers received plots and in return manned the defences in

times of war. (Such plots in London under Alfred's rule in the 880s shaped

the streetplan which still exists today between Cheapside and the Thames.)

This obligation required careful recording in what became known as 'the

Burghal Hidage', which gave details of the building and manning of Wessex

and Mercian burhs according to their size, the length of their ramparts and

the number of men needed to garrison them. Centred round Alfred's royal

palace in Winchester, this network of burhs with strongpoints on the main

river routes was such that no part of Wessex was more than 20 miles from

the refuge of one of these settlements. Together with a navy of new fast

ships built on Alfred's orders, southern England now had a defence in depth

against Danish raiders.

Alfred's concept of kingship extended beyond the administration of the

tribal kingdom of Wessex into a broader context. A religiously devout and

pragmatic man who learnt Latin in his late thirties, he recognised that the

general deterioration in learning and religion caused by the Vikings'

destruction of monasteries (the centres of the rudimentary education

network) had serious implications for rulership. For example, the poor

standards in Latin had led to a decline in the use of the charter as an

instrument of royal government to disseminate the king's instructions and

legislation. In one of his prefaces, Alfred wrote 'so general was its

[Latin] decay in England that there were very few on this side of the

Humber who could understand their rituals in English or translate a letter

from Latin into English ... so few that I cannot remember a single one

south of the Thames when I came to the throne.'

To improve literacy, Alfred arranged, and took part in, the translation

(by scholars from Mercia) from Latin into Anglo-Saxon of a handful of books

he thought it 'most needful for men to know, and to bring it to pass ... if

we have the peace, that all the youth now in England ... may be devoted to

learning'. These books covered history, philosophy and Gregory the Great's

'Pastoral Care' (a handbook for bishops), and copies of these books were

sent to all the bishops of the kingdom. Alfred was patron of the Anglo-

Saxon Chronicle (which was copied and supplemented up to 1154), a patriotic

history of the English from the Wessex viewpoint designed to inspire its

readers and celebrate Alfred and his monarchy.

Like other West Saxon kings, Alfred established a legal code; he

assembled the laws of Offa and other predecessors, and of the kingdoms of

Mercia and Kent, adding his own administrative regulations to form a

definitive body of Anglo-Saxon law. 'I ... collected these together and

ordered to be written many of them which our forefathers observed, those

which I liked; and many of those which I did not like I rejected with the

advice of my councillors ... For I dared not presume to set in writing at

all many of my own, because it was unknown to me what would please those

who should come after us ... Then I ... showed those to all my councillors,

and they then said that they were all pleased to observe them' (Laws of

Alfred, c.885-99).

By the 890s, Alfred's charters and coinage (which he had also reformed,

extending its minting to the burhs he had founded) referred to him as 'king

of the English', and Welsh kings sought alliances with him. Alfred died in

899, aged 50, and was buried in Winchester, the burial place of the West

Saxon royal family.

By stopping the Viking advance and consolidating his territorial gains,

Alfred had started the process by which his successors eventually extended

their power over the other Anglo-Saxon kings; the ultimate unification of

Anglo-Saxon England was to be led by Wessex. It is for his valiant defence

of his kingdom against a stronger enemy, for securing peace with the

Vikings and for his farsighted reforms in the reconstruction of Wessex and

beyond, that Alfred - alone of all the English kings and queens - is known

as 'the Great'.

EDWARD «THE ELDER» (899-924)

Well-trained by Alfred, his son Edward 'the Elder' (reigned 899-924) was

a bold soldier who defeated the Danes in Northumbria at Tettenhall in 910

and was acknowledged by the Viking kingdom of York. The kings of

Strathclyde and the Scots submitted to Edward in 921. By military success

and patient planning, Edward spread English influence and control. Much of

this was due to his alliance with his formidable sister Aethelflaed, who

was married to the ruler of Mercia and seems to have governed that kingdom

after her husband's death.

Edward was able to establish an administration for the kingdom of

England, whilst obtaining the allegiance of Danes, Scots and Britons.

Edward died in 924, and he was buried in the New Minster which he had had

completed at Winchester. Edward was twice married, but it is possible that

his eldest son Athelstan was the son of a mistress.

ATHELSTAN (924-939)

Edward's heir Athelstan (reigned 925-39) was also a distinguished and

audacious soldier who pushed the boundaries of the kingdom to their

furthest extent yet. In 927-8, Athelstan took York from the Danes; he

forced the submission of king Constantine of Scotland and of the northern

kings; all five Welsh kings agreed to pay a huge annual tribute (reportedly

including 25,000 oxen), and Athelstan eliminated opposition in Cornwall.

The battle of Brunanburh in 937, in which Athelstan led a force drawn

from Britain and defeated an invasion by the king of Scotland in alliance

with the Welsh and Danes from Dublin, earned him recognition by lesser

kings in Britain.

Athelstan's law codes strengthened royal control over his large kingdom;

currency was regulated to control silver's weight and to penalise

fraudsters. Buying and selling was mostly confined to the burghs,

encouraging town life; areas of settlement in the midlands and Danish towns

were consolidated into shires. Overseas, Athelstan built alliances by

marrying four of his half-sisters to various rulers in Western Europe.

He also had extensive cultural and religious contacts; as an enthusiastic

and discriminating collector of works of art and religious relics, he gave

away much of his collection to his followers and to churches and bishops in

order to retain their support.

Athelstan died at the height of his power and was buried at Malmesbury; a

church charter of 934 described him as 'King of the English, elevated by

the right hand of the Almighty ... to the Throne of the whole Kingdom of

Britain'. Athelstan died childless.

EDMUND I (939-46)

Son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his half-brother, Æthelstan, with whom

he had fought at Brunanburh. Combated the Norse Vikings in Northumbria and

subdued them in Cumbria and Strathclyde. He entrusted these lands to an

ally, Malcolm I of Scotland. Edmund met his death when he was killed at

Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by a robber.

EADRED (946-55)

King of Wessex and acknowledged as overlord of Mercia, the Danelaw and

Northumbria. A challenge to Eadred, which serves to illustrate one of his

chief qualities, developed in the north, in the early 950's. Eric Bloodaxe,

an aptly named, ferocious, Norse Viking who had been deposed by his own

people, established himself as king of Northumbria at York, apparently with

the fearful acquiescence of the Northumbrians. Eadred responded by marching

north with a considerable force to meet the threat. He proceeded to ravage

the Norse-held territories, then moved back to the south. He was attacked

on the way home by Eric's forces. Eadred was so enraged that he threatened

to go back to Northumbria and ravage the entire land.

This prospect frightened the already frightened Northumbrians into

abandoning Eric Bloodaxe. It must be that they viewed Eadred as more

formidable than a bloodthirsty Viking, who had been thrown out of a society

known for its bloodthirstiness, because he was too bloodthirsty and

tyrannical for them. In any case, according to the "AngloSaxon Chronicle",

"the Northumbrians expelled Eric."

As to his personal side, William of Malmesbury provides some

illumination. He says that Eadred was afflicted with some lingering

physical malady, since he was, "constantly oppressed by sickness, and of so

weak a digestion as to be unable to swallow more than the juices of the

food he had masticated, to the great annoyance of his guests." Regarding

his spiritual side, apparently the pillaging, ravaging and laying waste

that he did, had no deleterious effects on him. As Malmesbury states, he

devoted his life to God, "endured with patience his frequent bodily pains,

prolonged his prayers and made his palace altogether the school of virtue."

He died while still a young man, as had so many of the kings of Wessex,

"accompanied with the utmost grief of men but joy of angels."

EADWIG (EDWY) (955-59 AD)

On the death of Eadred, who had no children, Eadwig was chosen to be king

since he was the oldest of the children in the natural line of the House of

Wessex. He became king at 16 and displayed some of the tendencies one could

expect in one so young, royalty or not. Historians have not treated Eadwig

especially well, and it is unfortunate for him that he ran afoul of the

influential Bishop Dunstan (friend and advisor to the recently deceased

king, Eadred, future Archbishop of Canterbury and future saint), early in

his reign. An incident, which occurred on the day of Eadwig's consecration

as king, purportedly, illustrates the character of the young king.

According to the report of the reliable William of Malmesbury, all the

dignitaries and officials of the kingdom were meeting to discuss state

business, when the absence of the new king was noticed. Dunstan was

dispatched, along with another bishop, to find the missing youth. He was

found with his mind on matters other than those of state, in the company of

the daughter of a noble woman of the kingdom. Malmesbury writes, Dunstan, "

regardless of the royal indignation, dragged the lascivious boy from the

chamber and...compelling him to repudiate the strumpet made him his enemy

forever." The record of this incident was picked up by future monastic

chroniclers and made to be the definitive word on the character of Eadwig,

mainly because of St. Dunstan's role in it.

Dunstan was, after that incident, never exactly a favorite of Eadwig's,

and it may be fair to say that Eadwig even hated Dunstan, for he apparently

exiled him soon after this. Eadwig went on to marry Ælgifu, the girl with

whom he was keeping company at the time of Dunstan's intrusion. For her

part, "the strumpet" was eventually referred to as among "the most

illustrious of women", and Eadwig, in his short reign, was generous in

making grants to the church and other religious institutions. He died,

possibly of the Wessex family ailment, when he was only 20.

EDGAR (959-975)

Edgar, king in Mercia and the Danelaw from 957, succeeded his brother as

king of the English on Edwy's death in 959 - a death which probably

prevented civil war breaking out between the two brothers. Edgar was a firm

and capable ruler whose power was acknowledged by other rulers in Britain,

as well as by Welsh and Scottish kings. Edgar's late coronation in 973 at

Bath was the first to be recorded in some detail; his queen Aelfthryth was

the first consort to be crowned queen of England.

Edgar was the patron of a great monastic revival which owed much to his

association with Archbishop Dunstan. New bishoprics were created,

Benedictine monasteries were reformed and old monastic sites were re-

endowed with royal grants, some of which were of land recovered from the

Vikings.

In the 970s and in the absence of Viking attacks, Edgar - a stern judge -

issued laws which for the first time dealt with Northumbria (parts of which

were in the Danelaw) as well as Wessex and Mercia. Edgar's coinage was

uniform throughout the kingdom. A more united kingdom based on royal

justice and order was emerging; the Monastic Agreement (c.970) praised

Edgar as 'the glorious, by the grace of Christ illustrious king of the

English and of the other peoples dwelling within the bounds of the island

of Britain'. After his death on 8 July 975, Edgar was buried at Glastonbury

Abbey, Somerset.

EDWARD II «THE MARTYR» (975-979)

The sudden death of Edgar at the age of 33 led to a succession dispute

between rival factions supporting his sons Edward and Ethelred. The elder

son Edward was murdered in 978 at Corfe Castle, Dorset, by his seven-year-

old half-brother's supporters.

ETHELRED II «THE UNREADY» (979-1013 AND 1014-1016)

Ethelred, the younger son of Edgar, became king at the age of seven

following the murder of his half-brother Edward II in 978 at Corfe Castle,

Dorset, by Edward's own supporters.

For the rest of Ethelred's rule (reigned 978-1016), his brother became a

posthumous rallying point for political unrest; a hostile Church

transformed Edward into a royal martyr. Known as the Un-raed or 'Unready'

(meaning 'no counsel', or that he was unwise), Ethelred failed to win or

retain the allegiance of many of his subjects. In 1002, he ordered the

massacre of all Danes in England to eliminate potential treachery.

Not being an able soldier, Ethelred defended the country against

increasingly rapacious Viking raids from the 980s onwards by diplomatic

alliance with the duke of Normandy in 991 (he later married the duke's

daughter Emma) and by buying off renewed attacks by the Danes with money

levied through a tax called the Danegeld. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1006

was dismissive: 'in spite of it all, the Danish army went about as it

pleased'. By 1012, 48,000 pounds of silver was being paid in Danegeld to

Danes camped in London.

In 1013, Ethelred fled to Normandy when the powerful Viking Sweyn of

Denmark dispossessed him. Ethelred returned to rule after Sweyn's death in

1014, but died himself in 1016.

SWEYN (1013-1014)

The son of a Danish king, Sweyn 'Forkbeard' began conquering territory in

England in 1003, effectively devastating much of southern and midland

England. The English nobility became so disillusioned with their existing

king, Ethelred 'The Unready', that they acknowledged Sweyn as king in 1013.

Sweyn's reign was short, as he died in 1014, but his son Canute the Great

soon returned and reclaimed control of England.

EDMUND II, IRONSIDE (1016)

Edmund was King of England for only a few months. After the death of his

father, Æthelred II, in April 1016, Edmund led the defense of the city of

London against the invading Knut Sveinsson (Canute), and was proclaimed

king by the Londoners. Meanwhile, the Witan (Council), meeting at

Southampton, chose Canute as King. After a series of inconclusive military

engagements, in which Edmund performed brilliantly and earned the nickname

"Ironside", he defeated the Danish forces at Oxford, Kent, but was routed

by Canute's forces at Ashingdon, Essex. A subsequent peace agreement was

made, with Edmund controlling Wessex and Canute controlling Mercia and

Northumbria. It was also agreed that whoever survived the other would take

control of the whole realm. Unfortunately for Edmund, he died in November,

1016, transferring the Kingship of All England completely to Canute.

CANUTE «THE GREAT» (1016-1035)

Son of Sweyn, Canute became undisputed King of England in 1016, and his

rivals (Ethelred's surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018,

the last Danegeld of 82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but

capable, Canute consolidated his position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma

(Canute's first English partner - the Church did not recognise her as his

wife - was set aside, later appointed regent of Norway). During his reign,

Canute also became King of Denmark and Norway; his inheritance and

formidable personality combined to make him overlord of a huge northern

empire.

During his inevitable absences in Scandinavia, Canute used powerful English

and Danish earls to assist in England's government - English law and

methods of government remained unchanged.

A second-generation Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith,

Canute went on pilgrimage to Rome in 1027-8. (It was allegedly Christian

humility which made him reject his courtiers' flattery by demonstrating

that even he could not stop the waves; later hostile chroniclers were to

claim it showed madness.)

Canute was buried at Winchester. Given that there was no political or

governmental unity within his empire, it failed to survive owing to discord

between his sons by two different queens - Harold Harefoot (reigned 1035-

40) and Harthacnut (reigned 1040-42) - and the factions led by the semi-

independent Earls of Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.

HAROLD HAREFOOT (1035-1040)

Harold Harefoot was the son of Canute and his first wife, Elfgifu. The

brothers began by sharing the kingdom of England after their father's death

- Harold Harefoot becoming king in Mercia and Northumbria, and Harthacanute

king of Wessex. During the absence of Hardicanute in Denmark, his other

kingdom, Harold Harefoot became effective sole ruler. On his death in 1040,

the kingdom of England fell to Hardicanute alone.

HARDICANUTE (1035-1042)

Harthacnut was the son of Canute and his second wife, Emma, the widow of

Ethelred II. His father intended Hardicanute to become king of the English

in preference to his elder brother Harold Harefoot, but he nearly lost his

chance of this when he became preoccupied with affairs in Denmark, of which

he was also king. Instead, Canute's eldest son, Harold Harefoot, became

king of England as a whole. In 1039 Hardicanute eventually set sail for

England, arriving to find his brother dead and himself king.

EDWARD III, THE CONFESSOR (1042-66 AD)

The penultimate Anglo-Saxon king, Edward was the oldest son of Æthelred

II and Emma. He had gone to Normandy in 1013, when his father and mother

had fled from England. He stayed there during the reign of Canute and, at

his death in 1035, led an abortive attempt to capture the crown for

himself. He was recalled, for some reason, to the court of Hardicanute, his

half-brother.

Canute had placed the local control of the shires into the hands of

several powerful earls: Leofric of Mercia (Lady Godiva's husband), Siward

of Northumbria and Godwin of Wessex, the most formidable of all. Through

Godwin's influence, Edward took the throne at the untimely death of

Hardicanute in 1042. In 1045, he married Godwin's only daughter, Edith.

Resulting from the connections made during Edward's years in Normandy, he

surrounded himself with his Norman favorites and was unduly influenced by

them. This Norman "affinity" produced great displeasure among the Saxon

nobles. The anti-Norman faction was led by (who else?) Godwin of Wessex and

his son, Harold Godwinsson, took every available opportunity to undermine

the kings favorites. Edward sought to revenge himself on Godwin by

insulting his own wife and Godwin's daughter, Edith, and confining her to

the monastery of Wherwell. Disputes also arose over the issue of royal

patronage and Edward's inclination to reward his Norman friends.

A Norman, Robert Champart, who had been Bishop of London, was made

Archbishop of Canterbury by Edward in 1051, a promotion that displeased

Godwin immensely. The Godwins were banished from the kingdom after staging

an unsuccessful rebellion against the king but returned, landing an

invasionary force in the south of England in 1052. They received great

popular support, and in the face of this, the king was forced to restore

the Godwins to favor in 1053.

Edward's greatest achievement was the construction of a new cathedral,

where virtually all English monarchs from William the Conqueror onward

would be crowned. It was determined that the minster should not be built in

London, and so a place was found to the west of the city (hence

"Westminster"). The new church was consecrated at Christmas, 1065, but

Edward could not attend due to illness.

On his deathbed, Edward named Harold as his successor, instead of the

legitimate heir, his grandson, Edgar the Ætheling. The question of

succession had been an issue for some years and remained unsettled at

Edward's death in January, 1066. It was neatly resolved, however, by

William the Conqueror, just nine months later.

There is some question as to what kind of person Edward was. After his

death, he was the object of a religious cult and was canonized in 1161, but

that could be viewed as a strictly political move. Some say, probably

correctly, that he was a weak, but violent man and that his reputation for

saintliness was overstated, possibly a sham perpetrated by the monks of

Westminster in the twelfth century. Others seem to think that he was deeply

religious man and a patient and peaceable ruler.

HAROLD II (1066)

On Edward's death, the King's Council (the Witenagemot) confirmed

Edward's brother-in-law Harold, Earl of Wessex, as King. With no royal

blood, and fearing rival claims from William Duke of Normandy and the King

of Norway, Harold had himself crowned in Westminster Abbey on 6 January

1066, the day after Edward's death. During his brief reign, Harold showed

he was an outstanding commander.

In September, Harald Hardrada of Norway (aided by Harold's alienated

brother Tostig, Earl of Northumbria) invaded England and was defeated by

Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York. Hardrada's army had

invaded using over 300 ships; so many were killed that only 25 ships were

needed to transport the survivors home.

Meanwhile, William, Duke of Normandy (who claimed that Harold had

acknowledged him in 1064 as Edward's successor) had landed in Sussex.

Harold rushed south and, on 14 October 1066, his army of some 7,000

infantry was defeated on the field of Senlac near Hastings. Harold was hit

in the eye by an arrow and cut down by Norman swords.

An abbey was later built, in 1070, to fulfil a vow made by William I, and

its high altar was placed on the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of

Battle Abbey still remain with a stone slab marking where Harold died.

THE NORMANS

The Normans came to govern as a result of one of the most famous battles

in English history, the Battle of Hastings in 1066. From 1066 to 1154 four

kings ruled. The Domesday Book, that great source of English landholding,

was published, the forests were extended, the Exchequer was founded and a

start was made on the Tower of London. In religious affairs, the Gregorian

reform movement gathered pace and forced concessions, while the machinery

of government developed to support the country while Henry was fighting

abroad. Meanwhile, the social landscape was altered, as the Norman

aristocracy came to prominence. Many of the nobles struggled to keep a hold

on both Normandy and England, as divided rule meant the threat of conflict.

This was the case when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son,

Robert, became Duke of Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became

king of England. Their younger brother Henry would become king on William

II's death. The uneasy divide continued until Henry captured and imprisoned

his elder brother.

The question of the succession continued to weigh heavily over the

remainder of the period. Henry's son died, and his nominated heir Matilda

was denied the throne by her cousin, Henry's nephew, Stephen. There then

followed a period of civil war. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet of

Anjou, who took control of Normandy. The duchy was therefore separated from

England once again.

A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and

Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would

inherit his baronial lands. All this meant that in 1154 Henry II would

ascend to the throne as the first undisputed King in over 100 years - proof

of the dynastic uncertainty of the Norman period.

THE CONTINENTAL DYNASTIES

1066 - 1216

HAROLD BLUETOOTH,

King of Denmark

Gunhilda of = SWEYN FORKBEARD

Styrbjorn = Thyra

Poland

Richard I, Duke of

Sweden

of Normandy

Thorgils Sprakalegg

Elgiva of (1) = CANUTE = (2) Emma, widow of Judith

= Richard II,

Northampton (1016–1035) ATHELRED II

daughter of Duke of Gytha =

Godwin,

Conan I Normandy

Earl of

Wessex

HAROLD HARDICANUTE

HAREFOOT (1040–1042)

Robert I = Herlève

(1035–1040)

Duke of

Normandy

HAROLD

II EDWARD THE=Eadgyth

(1066)

CONFESSOR

(1042–1066)

WILLIAM I

= Matilda, dau. of

THE CONQUEROR

Baldwin V, Count

(1066–1087)

of Flanders

WILLIAM II

Adela = Stephen, Adela of =

HENRY I,

(1087–1100)

Count of Louvain

(1100–1135)

Blois

STEPHEN

Matilda = Geoffrey, Count

(1135–1154)

of Anjou and Maine

HENRY II =

Eleanor of

(1154–1189)

Aquitaine, divorced

wife of LOUIS VII,

King of

France

RICHARD I JOHN

= Isabella, dau. of

(1189–1199) (1199–1216)

Count of

Angoulême

HENRY III

(1216–1272)

WILLIAM I «THE CONQUEROR» (1066-1087)

Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of

Normandy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in

Falaise. Known as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his

illegitimacy shaped his career when he was young. On his father's death in

1035, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to

the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle

looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King

Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15. From 1047 onwards,

William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his

kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions

by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were

defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's military successes

and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter

of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England,

William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and

administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect

outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his

assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne

(he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to

uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper.

Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal

approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using

some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000

cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind,

William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised

fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King

of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September,

Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days

to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish

his exhausted veterans as he marched. At the Battle of Senlac (near

Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced

William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported

by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number

(they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-

handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based

on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the

Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William

rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The

battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks

and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other

withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were

killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry,

both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold

was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted

knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English

forces fled. (In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site

of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell.

The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it,

remain.) William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.

Three months later, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving

two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux,

who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the

kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest,

and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides

of the Channel. In 1068, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of

England (dealt with by William's local commanders), and there were

uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon and Cornwall. William appointed earls

who, in Wales and in all parts of the kingdom, undertook to guard the

threatened frontiers and maintain internal security in return for land. In

1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's

great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York.

Taking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at

Stafford, William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a

harsh campaign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia

and Northumbria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery

of English resistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and

agricultural land was laid to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and

mostly peasant population which lasted at least nine years. Although the

Danes were bribed to leave the north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships

threatened the east coast (in alliance with various English, including

Hereward the Wake) until a treaty of peace was concluded in June 1070.

Further north, where the boundary with Scotland was unclear, King Malcolm

III was encroaching into England. Yet again, William moved swiftly and

moved land and sea forces north to invade Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy

in 1072 marked a truce, which was reinforced by Malcolm's eldest son being

accepted as a hostage. William consolidated his conquest by starting a

castle-building campaign in strategic areas. Originally these castles were

wooden towers on earthen 'mottes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area)

surrounded by earth ramparts, but many were later rebuilt in stone. By the

end of William's reign over 80 castles had been built throughout his

kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the new Norman feudal order. William's

wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs (many

nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled him

to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange for

land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies. He created up to

180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the

governing centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to

repress rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by

mercenaries and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from

local levies. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military

arrangement which had survived the Conquest. The King's tenants-in-chief in

turn created knights under obligation to them and for royal duties (this

was called subinfeudation), with the result that private armies centred

around private castles were created - these were to cause future problems

of anarchy for unfortunate or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a

small group of the King's tenants had acquired about half of England's

landed wealth. Only two Englishmen still held large estates directly from

the King. A foreign aristocracy had been imposed as the new governing

class. The expenses of numerous campaigns, together with an economic slump

(caused by the shifts in landed wealth, and the devastation of northern

England for military and political reasons), prompted William to order a

full-scale investigation into the actual and potential wealth of the

kingdom to maximise tax revenues. The Domesday survey was prompted by

ignorance of the state of land holding in England, as well as the result of

the costs of defence measures in England and renewed war in France. The

scope, speed, efficiency and completion of this survey was remarkable for

its time and resulted in the two-volume Domesday Book of 1086, which still

exists today. William needed to ensure the direct loyalty of his feudal

tenants. The 1086 Oath of Salisbury was a gathering of William's 170

tenants-in-chief and other important landowners who took an oath of fealty

to William. William's reach extended elsewhere into the Church and the

legal system. French superseded the vernacular (Anglo-Saxon). Personally

devout, William used his bishops to carry out administrative duties.

Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1070, was a first-class

administrator who assisted in government when William was absent in France,

and who reorganised the Church in England. Having established the primacy

of his archbishopric over that of York, and with William's approval,

Lanfranc excommunicated rebels, and set up Church or spiritual courts to

deal with ecclesiastical matters. Lanfranc also replaced English bishops

and abbots (some of whom had already been removed by the Council of

Winchester under papal authority) with Norman or French clergy to reduce

potential political resistance. In addition, Canterbury and Durham

Cathedrals were rebuilt and some of the bishops' sees were moved to urban

centres. At his coronation, William promised to uphold existing laws and

customs. The Anglo-Saxon shire courts and 'hundred' courts (which

administered defence and tax, as well as justice matters) remained intact,

as did regional variations and private Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions. To

strengthen royal justice, William relied on sheriffs (previously smaller

landowners, but replaced by influential nobles) to supervise the

administration of justice in existing county courts, and sent members of

his own court to conduct important trials. However, the introduction of

Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the differing customs led to

a continuing complex legal framework. More severe forest laws reinforced

William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Royal deer reserve.

These laws caused great resentment, and to English chroniclers the New

Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King maintained

peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he was a very

stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to his will ...

Amongst other things the good security he made in this country is not to be

forgotten.' William spent the last months of his reign in Normandy,

fighting a counter-offensive in the French Vexin territory against King

Philip's annexation of outlying Normandy territory. Before his death on 9

September 1087, William divided his 'Anglo-Norman' state between his sons.

(The scene was set for centuries of expensive commitments by successive

English monarchs to defend their inherited territories in France.) William

bequeathed Normandy as he had promised to his eldest son Robert, despite

their bitter differences (Robert had sided with his father's enemies in

Normandy, and even wounded and defeated his father in a battle there in

1079). His son, William Rufus, was to succeed William as King of England,

and the third remaining son, Henry, was left 5,000 pounds in silver.

William was buried in his abbey foundation of St Stephen at Caen.

Desecrated by Huguenots (1562) and Revolutionaries (1793), the burial place

of the first Norman king of England is marked by a simple stone slab.

WILLIAM II (KNOWN AS WILLIAM RUFUS) (1087-1100)

Strong, outspoken and ruddy (hence his nickname 'Rufus'), William II

(reigned 1087-1100) extended his father's policies, taking royal power to

the far north of England. Ruthless in his relations with his brother

Robert, William extended his grip on the duchy of Normandy under an

agreement between the brothers in 1091. (Robert went on crusade in 1096.)

William's relations with the Church were not easy; he took over

Archbishop Lanfranc's revenues after the latter's death in 1089, kept other

bishoprics vacant to make use of their revenues, and had numerous arguments

with Lanfranc's popular successor, Anselm. William died on 2 August 1100,

after being shot by an arrow whilst hunting in the New Forest.

HENRY I (1100-1135)

William's younger brother Henry succeeded to the throne. He was crowned

three days after his brother's death, against the possibility that his

eldest brother Robert might claim the English throne. After the decisive

battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 in France, Henry completed his conquest of

Normandy from Robert, who then (unusually even for that time) spent the

last 28 years of his life as his brother's prisoner. An energetic,

decisive and occasionally cruel ruler, Henry centralised the administration

of England and Normandy in the royal court, using 'viceroys' in Normandy

and a group of advisers in England to act on his behalf when he was absent

across the Channel. Henry successfully sought to increase royal revenues,

as shown by the official records of his exchequer (the Pipe Roll of 1130,

the first exchequer account to survive). He established peaceful relations

with Scotland, through his marriage to Mathilda of Scotland. Henry's name

'Beauclerc' denoted his good education (as the youngest son, his parents

possibly expected that he would become a bishop); Henry was probably the

first Norman king to be fluent in English. In 1120, his legitimate sons

William and Richard drowned in the White Ship which sank in the English

Channel. This posed a succession problem, as Henry never allowed any of his

illegitimate children to expect succession to either England or Normandy.

Henry had a legitimate daughter Matilda (widow of Emperor Henry V,

subsequently married to the Count of Anjou). However, it was his nephew

Stephen (reigned 1135-54), son of William the Conqueror's daughter Adela,

who succeeded Henry after his death, allegedly caused by eating too many

lampreys (fish) in 1135, as the barons mostly opposed the idea of a female

ruler.

STEPHEN AND MATILDA (1135-1154)

Though charming, attractive and (when required) a brave warrior, Stephen

(reigned 1135-54) lacked ruthlessness and failed to inspire loyalty. He

could neither control his friends nor subdue his enemies, despite the

support of his brother Henry of Blois (Bishop of Winchester) and his able

wife Matilda of Boulogne. Henry I's daughter Matilda invaded England in

1139 to claim the throne, and the country was plunged into civil war.

Although anarchy never spread over the whole country, local feuds were

pursued under the cover of the civil war; the bond between the King and the

nobles broke down, and senior figures (including Stephen's brother Henry)

freely changed allegiances as it suited them. In 1141, Stephen was captured

at Lincoln and his defeat seemed certain. However, Matilda's arrogant

behaviour antagonised even her own supporters (Angevins), and Stephen was

released in exchange for her captured ally and illegitimate half-brother,

Earl Robert of Gloucester. After the latter's death in 1147, Matilda

retired to Normandy (which her husband, the Count of Anjou had conquered)

in 1148. Stephen's throne was still disputed. Matilda's eldest son, Henry,

who had been given Normandy by his father in 1150 and who had married the

heiress Eleanor Duchess of Aquitaine, invaded England in 1149 and again in

1153. Stephen fought stubbornly against Henry; Stephen even attempted to

ensure his son Eustace's succession by having him crowned in Stephen's own

lifetime. The Church refused (having quarrelled with the king some years

previously); Eustace's death later in 1153 helped lead to a negotiated

peace (the treaty of Wallingford) under which Henry would inherit the

throne after Stephen's death.

THE ANGEVINS

Henry II, the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Henry I's daughter

Matilda, was the first in a long line of 14 Plantagenet kings, stretching

from Henry II's accession through to Richard III's death in 1485. Within

that line, however, four distinct Royal Houses can be identified: Angevin,

Plantagenet, Lancaster and York.

The first Angevin King, Henry II, began the period as arguably the most

powerful monarch in Europe, with lands stretching from the Scottish borders

to the Pyrenees. In addition, Ireland was added to his inheritance, a

mission entrusted to him by Pope Adrian IV (the only English Pope). A new

administrative zeal was evident at the beginning of the period and an

efficient system of government was formulated. The justice system

developed. However there were quarrels with the Church, which became more

powerful following the murder of Thomas à Becket.

As with many of his predecessors, Henry II spent much of his time away

from England fighting abroad. This was taken to an extreme by his son

Richard, who spent only 10 months of a ten-year reign in the country due to

his involvement in the crusades. The last of the Angevin kings was John,

whom history has judged harshly. By 1205, six years into his reign, only a

fragment of the vast Angevin empire acquired by Henry II remained. John

quarrelled with the Pope over the appointment of the Archbishop of

Canterbury, eventually surrendering. He was also forced to sign the Magna

Carta in 1215, which restated the rights of the church, the barons and all

in the land. John died in ignominy, having broken the contract, leading the

nobles to summon aid from France and creating a precarious position for his

heir, Henry III.

HENRY II CURTMANTLE (1154-1189)

Henry II ruled over an empire which stretched from the Scottish border

to the Pyrenees. One of the strongest, most energetic and imaginative

rulers, Henry was the inheritor of three dynasties who had acquired

Aquitaine by marriage; his charters listed them: 'King of the English, Duke

of the Normans and Aquitanians and Count of the Angevins'. The King spent

only 13 years of his reign in England; the other 21 years were spent on the

continent in his territories in what is now France. Henry's rapid movements

in carrying out his dynastic responsibilities astonished the French king,

who noted 'now in England, now in Normandy, he must fly rather than travel

by horse or ship'. By 1158, Henry had restored to the Crown some of the

lands and royal power lost by Stephen; Malcom IV of Scotland was compelled

to return the northern counties. Locally chosen sheriffs were changed into

royally appointed agents charged with enforcing the law and collecting

taxes in the counties. Personally interested in government and law, Henry

made use of juries and re-introduced the sending of justices (judges) on

regular tours of the country to try cases for the Crown. His legal reforms

have led him to be seen as the founder of English Common Law. Henry's

disagreements with the Archbishop of Canterbury (the king's former chief

adviser), Thomas à Becket, over Church-State relations ended in Becket's

murder in 1170 and a papal interdict on England. Family disputes over

territorial ambitions almost wrecked the king's achievements. Henry died in

France in 1189, at war with his son Richard, who had joined forces with

King Philip of France to attack Normandy.

RICHARD I COEUR DE LION ('THE LIONHEART') (1189-1199)

Henry's elder son, Richard I (reigned 1189-99), fulfilled his main

ambition by going on crusade in 1190, leaving the ruling of England to

others. After his victories over Saladin at the siege of Acre and the

battles of Arsuf and Jaffa, concluded by the treaty of Jaffa (1192),

Richard was returning from the Holy Land when he was captured in Austria.

In early 1193, Richard was transferred to Emperor Henry VI's custody. In

Richard's absence, King Philip of France failed to obtain Richard's French

possessions through invasion or negotiation. In England, Richard's brother

John occupied Windsor Castle and prepared an invasion of England by Flemish

mercenaries, accompanied by armed uprisings. Their mother, Queen Eleanor,

took firm action against John by strengthening garrisons and again exacting

oaths of allegiance to the king. John's subversive activities were ended by

the payment of a crushing ransom of 150,000 marks of silver to the emperor,

for Richard's release in 1194. Warned by Philip's famous message 'look to

yourself, the devil is loosed', John fled to the French court. On his

return to England, Richard was recrowned at Winchester in 1194. Five years

later he died in France during a minor siege against a rebellious baron. By

the time of his death, Richard had recovered all his lands. His success was

short-lived. In 1199 his brother John became king and Philip successfully

invaded Normandy. By 1203, John had retreated to England, losing his French

lands of Normandy and Anjou by 1205.

JOHN (1199-1216)

John was an able administrator interested in law and government but he

neither trusted others nor was trusted by them. Heavy taxation, disputes

with the Church (John was excommunicated by the Pope in 1209) and

unsuccessful attempts to recover his French possessions made him unpopular.

Many of his barons rebelled and in June 1215 they forced the King to sign a

peace treaty accepting their reforms. This treaty, later known as Magna

Carta, limited royal powers, defined feudal obligations between the King

and the barons, and guaranteed a number of rights. The most influential

clauses concerned the freedom of the Church; the redress of grievances of

owners and tenants of land; the need to consult the Great Council of the

Realm so as to prevent unjust taxation; mercantile and trading

relationships; regulation of the machinery of justice so that justice be

denied to no one; and the requirement to control the behaviour of royal

officials. The most important clauses established the basis of habeas

corpus ('you have the body'), i.e. that no one shall be imprisoned except

by due process of law, and that 'to no one will we sell, to no one will we

refuse or delay right or justice'. The Charter also established a council

of barons who were to ensure that the Sovereign observed the Charter, with

the right to wage war on him if he did not. Magna Carta was the first

formal document insisting that the Sovereign was as much under the rule of

law as his people, and that the rights of individuals were to be upheld

even against the wishes of the sovereign. As a source of fundamental

constitutional principles, Magna Carta came to be seen as an important

definition of aspects of English law, and in later centuries as the basis

of the liberties of the English people. As a peace treaty Magna Carta was

a failure and the rebels invited Louis of France to become their king. When

John died in 1216 England was in the grip of civil war.

THE PLANTAGENETS

The Plantagenet period was dominated by three major conflicts at home

and abroad. Edward I attempted to create a British empire dominated by

England, conquering Wales and pronouncing his eldest son Prince of Wales,

and then attacking Scotland. Scotland was to remain elusive and retain its

independence until late in the reign of the Stuart kings. In the reign

of Edward III the Hundred Years War began, a struggle between England and

France. At the end of the Plantagenet period, the reign of Richard II saw

the beginning of the long period of civil feuding known as the War of the

Roses. For the next century, the crown would be disputed by two conflicting

family strands, the Lancastrians and the Yorkists.

The period also saw the development of new social institutions and a

distinctive English culture. Parliament emerged and grew. The judicial

reforms begun in the reign of Henry II were continued and completed by

Edward I. Culture began to flourish. Three Plantagenet kings were patrons

of Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry. During the early part of

the period, the architectural style of the Normans gave way to the Gothic,

in which style Salisbury Cathedral was built. Westminster Abbey was rebuilt

and the majority of English cathedrals remodelled. Franciscan and Dominican

orders began to be established in England, while the universities of Oxford

and Cambridge had their origins in this period.

Amidst the order of learning and art, however, were disturbing new

phenomena. The outbreak of Bubonic plague or the 'Black Death' served to

undermine military campaigns and cause huge social turbulence, killing half

the country's population. The price rises and labour shortage

which resulted led to social unrest, culminating in the Peasants' Revolt in

1381.

THE PLANTAGENET DYNASTIES

1216 - 1485

HENRY III

= Eleanor, dau. of Count of Provence

(1216–1272)

Eleanor, =

EDWARD I

dau. of

(1272–1307)

FERDINAND III,

King of Castile

and Leon

EDWARD

II = Isabella, dau.

(1307–1327) of PHILIP IV,

King of France

EDWARD III = Philippa, dau. of Count

(1327–1377) of Hainault and Holland

Edward, Prince = Joan, dau. of Earl Lionel, Duke = Elizabeth

Blanche of = John, Duke = Katharine Swynford,

of Wales, of Kent (son of Clarence de

Burgh Lancaster of Lancaster dau. of Sir

Roet

The Black Prince of EDWARD I)

of Guienne

RICHARD II Edmund, = Philippa

Mary = HENRY IV John Beaufort,

(1377–1399) Earl of March

Bohun (1399–1413)

Roger, Earl = Eleanor HENRY V

(1) = Katherine, dau. John Beaufort,

of March Holland

(1413–1422) of CHARLES VI, Duke of Somerset

King of France

Richard, Earl = Anne

HENRY VI Margaret Beaufort =

Edmund Tudor,

of Cambridge Mortimer

(1422–1461,

Earl of Richmond

1470–1471)

Richard, Duke = Cecily

Elizabeth of York, = HENRY

VII

of York Neville

dau. of EDWARD IV

(1485–1509)

EDWARD IV = Elizabeth, dau.

RICHARD III

(1461–1470, of Sir Richard

(1483–1485)

1471–1483) Woodville

EDWARD V

Elizabeth = HENRY VII

(1483)

(1485–1509)

HENRY III (1216-1272)

Henry III, King John's son, was only nine when he became King. By 1227,

when he assumed power from his regent, order had been restored, based on

his acceptance of Magna Carta. However, the King's failed campaigns in

France (1230 and 1242), his choice of friends and advisers, together with

the cost of his scheme to make one of his younger sons King of Sicily and

help the Pope against the Holy Roman Emperor, led to further disputes with

the barons and united opposition in Church and State. Although Henry was

extravagant and his tax demands were resented, the King's accounts show a

list of many charitable donations and payments for building works

(including the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey which began in 1245). The

Provisions of Oxford (1258) and the Provisions of Westminster (1259) were

attempts by the nobles to define common law in the spirit of Magna Carta,

control appointments and set up an aristocratic council. Henry tried to

defeat them by obtaining papal absolution from his oaths, and enlisting

King Louis XI's help. Henry renounced the Provisions in 1262 and war broke

out. The barons, under their leader, Simon de Montfort, were initially

successful and even captured Henry. However, Henry escaped, joined forces

with the lords of the Marches (on the Welsh border), and Henry finally

defeated and killed de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. Royal

authority was restored by the Statute of Marlborough (1267), in which the

King also promised to uphold Magna Carta and some of the Provisions of

Westminster.

EDWARD I (1272-1307)

Born in June 1239 at Westminster, Edward was named by his father Henry

III after the last Anglo Saxon king (and his father's favourite saint),

Edward the Confessor. Edward's parents were renowned for their patronage of

the arts (his mother, Eleanor of Provence, encouraged Henry III to spend

money on the arts, which included the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey and a

still-extant magnificent shrine to house the body of Edward the Confessor),

and Edward received a disciplined education - reading and writing in Latin

and French, with training in the arts, sciences and music. In 1254, Edward

travelled to Spain for an arranged marriage at the age of 15 to 9-year-old

Eleanor of Castile. Just before Edward's marriage, Henry III gave him the

duchy of Gascony, one of the few remnants of the once vast French

possessions of the English Angevin kings. Gascony was part of a package

which included parts of Ireland, the Channel Islands and the King's lands

in Wales to provide an income for Edward. Edward then spent a year in

Gascony, studying its administration. Edward spent his young adulthood

learning harsh lessons from Henry III's failures as a king, culminating in

a civil war in which he fought to defend his father. Henry's ill-judged and

expensive intervention in Sicilian affairs (lured by the Pope's offer of

the Sicilian crown to Henry's younger son) failed, and aroused the anger of

powerful barons including Henry's brother-in-law Simon de Montfort.

Bankrupt and threatened with excommunication, Henry was forced to agree to

the Provisions of Oxford in 1258, under which his debts were paid in

exchange for substantial reforms; a Great Council of 24, partly nominated

by the barons, assumed the functions of the King's Council. Henry

repudiated the Provisions in 1261 and sought the help of the French king

Louis IX (later known as St Louis for his piety and other qualities). This

was the only time Edward was tempted to side with his charismatic and

politically ruthless godfather Simon de Montfort - he supported holding a

Parliament in his father's absence. However, by the time Louis IX decided

to side with Henry in the dispute and civil war broke out in England in

1263, Edward had returned to his father's side and became de Montfort's

greatest enemy. After winning the battle of Lewes in 1264 (after which

Edward became a hostage to ensure his father abided by the terms of the

peace), de Montfort summoned the Great Parliament in 1265 - this was the

first time cities and burghs sent representatives to the parliament.

(Historians differ as to whether de Montfort was an enlightened liberal

reformer or an unscrupulous opportunist using any means to advance

himself.) In May 1265, Edward escaped from tight supervision whilst

hunting. On 4 August, Edward and his allies outmanoeuvred de Montfort in a

savage battle at Evesham; de Montfort predicted his own defeat and death

'let us commend our souls to God, because our bodies are theirs ... they

are approaching wisely, they learned this from me.' With the ending of the

civil war, Edward worked hard at social and political reconciliation

between his father and the rebels, and by 1267 the realm had been pacified.

In April 1270 Parliament agreed an unprecedented levy of one-twentieth of

every citizen's goods and possessions to finance Edward's Crusade to the

Holy Lands. Edward left England in August 1270 to join the highly respected

French king Louis IX on Crusade. At a time when popes were using the

crusading ideal to further their own political ends in Italy and elsewhere,

Edward and King Louis were the last crusaders in the medieval tradition of

aiming to recover the Holy Lands. Louis died of the plague in Tunis before

Edward's arrival, and the French forces were bought off from pursuing their

campaign. Edward decided to continue regardless: 'by the blood of God,

though all my fellow soldiers and countrymen desert me, I will enter Acre

... and I will keep my word and my oath to the death'. Edward arrived in

Acre in May 1271 with 1,000 knights; his crusade was to prove an

anticlimax. Edward's small force limited him to the relief of Acre and a

handful of raids, and divisions amongst the international force of

Christian Crusaders led to Edward's compromise truce with the Baibars. In

June 1272, Edward survived a murder attempt by an Assassin (an order of

Shi'ite Muslims) and left for Sicily later in the year. He was never to

return on crusade. Meanwhile, Henry III died on 16 November 1272. Edward

succeeded to the throne without opposition - given his track record in

military ability and his proven determination to give peace to the country,

enhanced by his magnified exploits on crusade. In Edward's absence, a

proclamation in his name delcared that he had succeeded by hereditary right

and the barons swore allegeiance to him. Edward finally arrived in London

in August 1274 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey. Aged 35, he was a

veteran warrior ('the best lance in all the world', according to

contemporaries), a leader with energy and vision, and with a formidable

temper. Edward was determined to enforce English kings' claims to primacy

in the British Isles. The first part of his reign was dominated by Wales.

At that time, Wales consisted of a number of disunited small Welsh

princedoms; the South Welsh princes were in uneasy alliance with the

Marcher lords (feudal earldoms and baronies set up by the Norman kings to

protect the English border against Welsh raids) against the Northern Welsh

based in the rocky wilds of Gwynedd, under the strong leadership of

Llywelyn ap Gruffyd, Prince of Gwynedd. In 1247, under the Treaty of

Woodstock, Llywelyn had agreed that he held North Wales in fee to the

English king. By 1272, Llywelyn had taken advantage of the English civil

wars to consolidate his position, and the Peace of Montgomery (1267) had

confirmed his title as Prince of Wales and recognised his conquests.

However, Llywelyn maintained that the rights of his principality were

'entirely separate from the rights' of England; he did not attend Edward's

coronation and refused to do homage. Finally, in 1277 Edward decided to

fight Llywelyn 'as a rebel and disturber of the peace', and quickly

defeated him. War broke out again in 1282 when Llywelyn joined his brother

David in rebellion. Edward's determination, military experience and skilful

use of ships brought from England for deployment along the North Welsh

coast, drove Llywelyn back into the mountains of North Wales. The death of

Llywelyn in a chance battle in 1282 and the subsequent execution of his

brother David effectively ended attempts at Welsh independence. Under the

Statute of Wales of 1284, Wales was brought into the English legal

framework and the shire system was extended. In the same year, a son was

born in Wales to Edward and Queen Eleanor (also named Edward, this future

king was proclaimed the first English Prince of Wales in 1301). The Welsh

campaign had produced one of the largest armies ever assembled by an

English king - some 15,000 infantry (including 9,000 Welsh and a Gascon

contingent); the army was a formidable combination of heavy Anglo-Norman

cavalry and Welsh archers, whose longbow skills laid the foundations of

later military victories in France such as that at Agincourt. As symbols of

his military strength and political authority, Edward spent some £80,000 on

a network of castles and lesser strongholds in North Wales, employing a

work-force of up to 3,500 men drawn from all over England. (Some castles,

such as Conway and Caernarvon, remain in their ruined layouts today, as

examples of fortresses integrated with fortified towns.) Edward's campaign

in Wales was based on his determination to ensure peace and extend royal

authority, and it had broad support in England. Edward saw the need to

widen support among lesser landowners and the merchants and traders of the

towns. The campaigns in Wales, France and Scotland left Edward deeply in

debt, and the taxation required to meet those debts meant enrolling

national support for his policies. To raise money, Edward summoned

Parliament - up to 1286 he summoned Parliaments twice a year. (The word

'Parliament' came from the 'parley' or talks which the King had with larger

groups of advisers.) In 1295, when money was needed to wage war against

Philip of France (who had confiscated the duchy of Gascony), Edward

summoned the most comprehensive assembly ever summoned in England. This

became known as the Model Parliament, for it represented various estates:

barons, clergy, and knights and townspeople. By the end of Edward's reign,

Parliament usually contained representatives of all these estates. Edward

used his royal authority to establish the rights of the Crown at the

expense of traditional feudal privileges, to promote the uniform

administration of justice, to raise income to meet the costs of war and

government, and to codify the legal system. In doing so, his methods

emphasised the role of Parliament and the common law. With the able help of

his Chancellor, Robert Burnell, Bishop of Bath and Wells, Edward introduced

much new legislation. He began by commissioning a thorough survey of local

government (with the results entered into documents known as the Hundred

Rolls), which not only defined royal rights and possessions but also

revealed administrative abuses. The First Statute of Westminster (1275)

codified 51 existing laws - many originating from Magna Carta - covering

areas ranging from extortion by royal officers, lawyers and bailiffs,

methods of procedure in civil and criminal cases to freedom of elections.

Edward's first Parliament also enacted legislation on wool, England's most

important export at the time. At the request of the merchants, Edward was

given a customs grant on wool and hides which amounted to nearly £10,000 a

year. Edward also obtained income from the licence fees imposed by the

Statute of Mortmain (1279), under which gifts of land to the Church (often

made to evade death duties) had to have a royal licence. The Statutes of

Gloucester (1278) and Quo Warranto (1290) attempted to define and regulate

feudal jurisdictions, which were an obstacle to royal authority and to a

uniform system of justice for all; the Statute of Winchester (1285)

codified the policing system for preserving public order. Other statutes

had a long-term effect on land law and on the feudal framework in England.

The Second Statute of Westminster (1285) restricted the alienation of land

and kept entailed estates within families: tenants were only tenants for

life and not able to sell the property to others. The Third Statute of

Westminster or Quia Emptores (1290) stopped subinfeudation (in which

tenants of land belonging to the King or to barons subcontracted their

properties and related feudal services). Edward's assertion that the King

of Scotland owed feudal allegiance to him, and the embittered Anglo-

Scottish relations leading to war which followed, were to overshadow the

rest of Edward's reign in what was to become known as the 'Great Cause'.

Under a treaty of 1174, William the Lion of Scotland had become the vassal

to Henry II, but in 1189 Richard I had absolved William from his

allegiance. Intermarriage between the English and Scottish royal houses

promoted peace between the two countries until the premature death of

Alexander III in 1286. In 1290, his granddaughter and heiress, Margaret the

'Maid of Norway' (daughter of the King of Norway, she was pledged to be

married to Edward's then only surviving son, Edward of Caernarvon), also

died. For Edward, this dynastic blow was made worse by the death in the

same year of his much-loved wife Eleanor (her body was ceremonially carried

from Lincoln to Westminster for burial, and a memorial cross erected at

every one of the twelve resting places, including what became known as

Charing Cross in London). In the absence of an obvious heir to the

Scottish throne, the disunited Scottish magnates invited Edward to

determine the dispute. In order to gain acceptance of his authority in

reaching a verdict, Edward sought and obtained recognition from the rival

claimants that he had the 'sovereign lordship of Scotland and the right to

determine our several pretensions'. In November 1292, Edward and his 104

assessors gave the whole kingdom to John Balliol or Baliol as the claimant

closest to the royal line; Balliol duly swore loyalty to Edward and was

crowned at Scone. John Balliol's position proved difficult. Edward

insisted that Scotland was not independent and he, as sovereign lord, had

the right to hear in England appeals against Balliol's judgements in

Scotland. In 1294, Balliol lost authority amongst Scottish magnates by

going to Westminster after receiving a summons from Edward; the magnates

decided to seek allies in France and concluded the 'Auld Alliance' with

France (then at war with England over the duchy of Gascony) - an alliance

which was to influence Scottish history for the next 300 years. In March

1296, having failed to negotiate a settlement, the English led by Edward

sacked the city of Berwick near the River Tweed. Balliol formally renounced

his homage to Edward in April 1296, speaking of 'grievous and intolerable

injuries ... for instance by summoning us outside our realm ... as your own

whim dictated ... and so ... we renounce the fealty and homage which we

have done to you'. Pausing to design and start the rebuilding of Berwick as

the financial capital of the country, Edward's forces overran remaining

Scottish resistance. Scots leaders were taken hostage, and Edinburgh

Castle, amongst others, was seized. Balliol surrendered his realm and spent

the rest of his life in exile in England and Normandy. Having humiliated

Balliol, Edward's insensitive policies in Scotland continued: he appointed

a trio of Englishmen to run the country. Edward had the Stone of Scone -

also known as the Stone of Destiny - on which Scottish sovereigns had been

crowned removed to London and subsequently placed in the Coronation Chair

in Westminster Abbey (where it remained until it was returned to Scotland

in 1996). Edward never built stone castles on strategic sites in Scotland,

as he had done so successfully in Wales - possibly because he did not have

the funds for another ambitious castle-building programme. By 1297, Edward

was facing the biggest crisis in his reign, and his commitments outweighed

his resources. Chronic debts were being incurred by wars against France, in

Flanders, Gascony and Wales as well as Scotland; the clergy were refusing

to pay their share of the costs, with the Archbishop of Canterbury

threatening excommunication; Parliament was reluctant to contribute to

Edward's expensive and unsuccessful military policies; the Earls of

Hereford and Norfolk refused to serve in Gascony, and the barons presented

a formal statement of their grievances. In the end, Edward was forced to

reconfirm the Charters (including Magna Carta) to obtain the money he

required; the Archbishop was eventually suspended in 1306 by the new Gascon

Pope Clement V; a truce was declared with France in 1297, followed by a

peace treaty in 1303 under which the French king restored the duchy of

Gascony to Edward. In Scotland, Edward pursued a series of campaigns from

1298 onwards. William Wallace had risen in Balliol's name and recovered

most of Scotland, before being defeated by Edward at the battle of Falkirk

in 1298. (Wallace escaped, only to be captured in 1305, allegedly by the

treachery of a fellow Scot and taken to London, where he was executed.) In

1304, Edward summoned a full Parliament (which elected Scottish

representatives also attended), in which arrangements for the settlement of

Scotland were made. The new government in Scotland featured a Council,

which included Robert the Bruce. Bruce unexpectedly rebelled in 1306 by

killing a fellow counsellor and was crowned king of Scotland at Scone.

Despite his failing health, Edward was carried north to pursue another

campaign, but he died en route at Burgh on Sands on 7 July 1307 aged 68.

According to chroniclers, Edward requested that his bones should be carried

on Scottish campaigns and that his heart be taken to the Holy Land.

However, Edward was buried at Westminster Abbey in a plain black marble

tomb, which in later years was painted with the words Scottorum malleus

(Hammer of the Scots) and Pactum serva (Keep troth). Throughout the

fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Exchequer paid to keep candles

burning 'round the body of the Lord Edward, formerly King of England, of

famous memory'.

EDWARD II (1307-1327)

Edward II had few of the qualities that made a successful medieval king.

Edward surrounded himself with favourites (the best known being a Gascon,

Piers Gaveston), and the barons, feeling excluded from power, rebelled.

Throughout his reign, different baronial groups struggled to gain power and

control the King. The nobles' ordinances of 1311, which attempted to limit

royal control of finance and appointments, were counteracted by Edward.

Large debts (many inherited) and the Scots' victory at Bannockburn by

Robert the Bruce in 1314 made Edward more unpopular. Edward's victory in a

civil war (1321-2) and such measures as the 1326 ordinance (a protectionist

measure which set up compulsory markets or staples in 14 English, Welsh and

Irish towns for the wool trade) did not lead to any compromise between the

King and the nobles. Finally, in 1326, Edward's wife, Isabella of France,

led an invasion against her husband. In 1327 Edward was made to renounce

the throne in favour of his son Edward (the first time that an anointed

king of England had been dethroned since Ethelred in 1013). Edward II was

later murdered at Berkeley Castle.

EDWARD III (1327-77)

Edward III was 14 when he was crowned King and assumed government in his

own right in 1330. In 1337, Edward created the Duchy of Cornwall to provide

the heir to the throne with an income independent of the sovereign or the

state. An able soldier, and an inspiring leader, Edward founded the Order

of the Garter in 1348. At the beginning of the Hundred Years War in 1337,

actual campaigning started when the King invaded France in 1339 and laid

claim to the throne of France. Following a sea victory at Sluys in 1340,

Edward overran Brittany in 1342 and in 1346 he landed in Normandy,

defeating the French King, Philip IV, at the Battle of Crécy and his son

Edward (the Black Prince) repeated his success at Poitiers (1356). By 1360

Edward controlled over a quarter of France. His successes consolidated the

support of the nobles, lessened criticism of the taxes, and improved

relations with Parliament. However, under the 1375 Treaty of Bruges the

French King, Charles V, reversed most of the English conquests; Calais and

a coastal strip near Bordeaux were Edward's only lasting gain. Failure

abroad provoked criticism at home. The Black Death plague outbreaks of 1348-

9, 1361-2 and 1369 inflicted severe social dislocation (the King lost a

daughter to the plague) and caused deflation; severe laws were introduced

to attempt to fix wages and prices. In 1376, the 'Good Parliament' (which

saw the election of the first Speaker to represent the Commons) attacked

the high taxes and criticised the King's advisers. The ageing King withdrew

to Windsor for the rest of his reign, eventually dying at Sheen Palace,

Surrey.

RICHARD II (1377-99)

Edward III's son, the Black Prince, died in 1376. The King's grandson,

Richard II, succeeded to the throne aged 10, on Edward's death. In 1381 the

Peasants' Revolt broke out and Richard, aged 14, bravely rode out to meet

the rebels at Smithfield, London. Wat Tyler, the principal leader of the

peasants, was killed and the uprisings in the rest of the country were

crushed over the next few weeks (Richard was later forced by his Council's

advice to rescind the pardons he had given). Highly cultured, Richard was

one of the greatest royal patrons of the arts; patron of Chaucer, it was

Richard who ordered the technically innovative transformation of the Norman

Westminster Hall to what it is today. (Built between 1097 and 1099 by

William II, the Hall was the ceremonial and administrative centre of the

kingdom; it also housed the Courts of Justice until 1882.) Richard's

authoritarian approach upset vested interests, and his increasing

dependence on favourites provoked resentment. In 1388 the 'Merciless

Parliament' led by a group of lords hostile to Richard (headed by the

King's uncle, Gloucester) sentenced many of the King's favourites to death

and forced Richard to renew his coronation oath. The death of his first

queen, Anne of Bohemia, in 1394 further isolated Richard, and his

subsequent arbitrary behaviour alienated people further. Richard took his

revenge in 1397, arresting or banishing many of his opponents; his cousin,

Henry of Bolingbroke, was also subsequently banished. On the death of

Henry's father, John of Gaunt (a younger son of Edward III), Richard

confiscated the vast properties of his Duchy of Lancaster (which amounted

to a state within a state) and divided them among his supporters. Richard

pursued policies of peace with France (his second wife was Isabella of

Valois); Richard still called himself king of France and refused to give up

Calais, but his reign was concurrent with a 28 year truce in the Hundred

Years War. His expeditions to Ireland failed to reconcile the Anglo-Irish

lords with the Gaels. In 1399, whilst Richard was in Ireland, Henry of

Bolingbroke returned to claim his father's inheritance. Supported by some

of the leading baronial families (including Richard's former Archbishop of

Canterbury), Henry captured and deposed Richard. Bolingbroke was crowned

King as Henry IV. Risings in support of Richard led to his murder in

Pontefract Castle; Henry V subsequently had his body buried in Westminster

Abbey.

THE LANCASTRIANS

The accession of Henry IV sowed the seeds for a period of unrest which

ultimately broke out in civil war. Fraught by rebellion and instability

after his usurpation of Richard II, Henry IV found it difficult to enforce

his rule. His son, Henry V, fared better, defeating France in the famous

Battle of Agincourt (1415) and staking a powerful claim to the French

throne. Success was short-lived with his early death.

By the reign of the relatively weak Henry VI, civil war broke out between

rival claimants to the throne, dating back to the sons of Edward III. The

Lancastrian dynasty descended from John of Gaunt, third son of Edward III,

whose son Henry deposed the unpopular Richard II. Yorkist claimants such

as the Duke of York asserted their legitimate claim to the throne through

Edward III's second surviving son, but through a female line. The Wars of

the Roses therefore tested whether the succession should keep to the male

line or could pass through females.

Captured and briefly restored, Henry VI was captured and put to death,

and the Yorkist faction led by Edward IV gained the throne.

HENRY IV (1399-1413)

Henry IV was born at Bolingbroke in 1367 to John of Gaunt and Blanche of

Lancaster. He married Mary Bohun in 1380, who bore him seven children

before her death in 1394. In 1402, Henry remarried, taking as his bride

Joan of Navarre. Henry had an on-again, off-again relationship with his

cousin, Richard II. He was one of the Lords Appellant, who, in 1388,

persecuted many of Richard's advisor-favorites, but his excellence as a

soldier gained the king's favor - Henry was created Duke of Hereford in

1397. In 1398, however, the increasingly suspicious Richard banished him

for ten years. John of Gaunt's death in 1399 prompted Richard to confiscate

the vast Lancastrian estates; Henry invaded England while Richard was on

campaign in Ireland, usurping the throne from the king. The very nature of

Henry's usurpation dictated the circumstances of his reign - incessant

rebellion became the order of the day. Richard's supporters immediately

revolted upon his deposition in 1400. In Wales, Owen Glendower led a

national uprising that lasted until 1408; the Scots waged continual warfare

throughout the reign; the powerful families of Percy and Mortimer (the

latter possessing a stronger claim to the throne than Henry) revolted from

1403 to 1408; and Richard Scrope, Archbishop of York, proclaimed his

opposition to the Lancastrian claim in 1405. Two political blunders in the

latter years of his reign diminished Henry's support. His marriage to Joan

of Navarre (of whom it was rumored practiced necromancy) was highly

unpopular - she was, in fact, convicted of witchcraft in 1419. Scrope and

Thomas Mawbray were executed in 1405 after conspiring against Henry; the

Archbishop's execution alarmed the English people, adding to his

unpopularity. He developed a nasty skin disorder and epilepsy, persuading

many that God was punishing the king for executing an archbishop. Crushing

the myriad of rebellions was costly, which involved calling Parliament to

fund such activities. The House of Commons used the opportunity to expand

its powers in 1401, securing recognition of freedom of debate and freedom

from arrest for dissenting opinions. Lollardy, the Protestant movement

founded by John Wycliffe during the reign of Edward III, gained momentum

and frightened both secular and clerical landowners, inspiring the first

anti-heresy statute, De Heritico Comburendo, to become law in 1401. Henry,

ailing from leprosy and epilepsy, watched as Prince Henry controlled the

government for the last two years of his reign. In 1413, Henry died in the

Jerusalem Chamber of Westminster Abbey. Rafael Holinshed explained his

unpopularity in Chronicles of England: "... by punishing such as moved with

disdain to see him usurp the crown, did at sundry times rebel against him,

he won(himself more hatred, than in all his life time ... had been possible

for him to have weeded out and removed." Unlikely as it may seem (due to

the amount of rebellion in his reign); Henry left his eldest son an

undisputed succession.

HENRY V (1413-1422)

Henry V, the eldest son of Henry IV and Mary Bohun, was born in 1387. As

per arrangement by the Treaty of Troyes, he married Catherine, daughter of

the French King Charles VI, in June 1420. His only child, the future Henry

VI, was born in 1421.

Henry was an accomplished soldier: at age fourteen he fought the Welsh

forces of Owen ap Glendower; at age sixteen he commanded his father's

forces at the battle of Shrewsbury; and shortly after his accession he put

down a major Lollard uprising and an assassination plot by nobles still

loyal to Richard II . He proposed to marry Catherine in 1415, demanding the

old Plantagenet lands of Normandy and Anjou as his dowry. Charles VI

refused and Henry declared war, opening yet another chapter in the Hundred

Years' War. The French war served two purposes - to gain lands lost in

previous battles and to focus attention away from any of his cousins' royal

ambitions. Henry, possessed a masterful military mind and defeated the

French at the Battle of Agincourt in October 1415, and by 1419 had captured

Normandy, Picardy and much of the Capetian stronghold of the Ile-de-France.

By the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, Charles VI not only accepted Henry as

his son-in-law, but passed over his own son to name Henry as heir to the

French crown. Had Henry lived a mere two months longer, he would have been

king of both England and France.

Henry had prematurely aged due to living the hard life of a soldier. He

became seriously ill and died after returning from yet another French

campaign; Catherine had bore his only son while he was away and Henry died

having never seen the child. The historian Rafael Holinshed, in Chronicles

of England , summed up Henry's reign as such: "This Henry was a king, of

life without spot, a prince whom all men loved, and of none disdained, e

captain against whom fortune never frowned, nor mischance once spurned,

whose people him so severe a justicer both loved and obeyed (and so humane

withal) that he left no offence unpunished, nor friendship unrewarded; a

terror to rebels, and suppressor of sedition, his virtues notable, his

qualities most praiseworthy."

HENRY VI (1422-61, 1470-71 AD)

Henry VI was the only child of Henry V and Catherine of Valois, born on

December 6, 1421. He married Margaret of Anjou in 1445; the union produced

one son, Edward, who was killed in battle one day before Henry's execution.

Henry came to the throne as an infant after the early death of his father;

in name, he was king of both England and France, but a protector ruled each

realm. He was educated by Richard Beauchamp beginning in 1428. The whole of

Henry's reign was involved with retaining both of his crowns - in the end,

he held neither.

Hostilities in France continued, but momentum swung to the French with

the appearance of Joan of Arc in 1428. The seventeen year old was

instrumental in rescuing the French Dauphin Charles in 1429; he was crowned

at Reims as Charles VII, and she was burned at the stake as a heretic.

English losses in Brittany (1449), Normandy (1450) and Gascony (1453) led

to the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War in 1453. Henry lost his claim

to all French soil except for Calais.

The Wars of the Roses began in full during Henry's reign. In 1453, Henry

had an attack of the hereditary mental illness that plagued the French

house of Valois; Richard, Duke of York, was made protector of the realm

during the illness. His wife Margaret, a rather headstrong woman, alienated

Richard upon Henry's recovery and Richard responded by attacking and

defeating the queen's forces at St. Albans in 1455. Richard captured the

king in 1460 and forced him to acknowledge Richard as heir to the crown.

Henry escaped, joined the Lancastvian forces and attacked at Towton in

March 1461, only to be defeated by the Yorks. Richard's son, Edward IV, was

proclaimed king; Margaret and Henry were exiled to Scotland. They were

captured in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London until 1470. Henry

was briefly restored to power in Settember 1470. Edward, Prince of Wales,

died after his final victory at Tewkesbury on May 20, 1471 and Henry

returned to the Tower. The last Lancastrian king was murdered the following

day.

THE YORKISTS

The Yorkist conquest of the Lancastrians in 1461 did not put an end to

the Wars of the Roses, which rumbled on until the start of the sixteenth

century. Family disloyalty in the form of Richard III's betrayal of his

nephews, the young King Edward V and his brother, was part of his downfall.

Henry Tudor, a claimant to the throne of Lancastrian descent, defeated

Richard III in battle and Richard was killed. With the marriage of Henry to

Elizabeth, the sister of the young Princes in the Tower, reconciliation was

finally achieved between the warring houses of Lancaster and York in the

form of the new Tudor dynasty, which combined their respective red and

white emblems to produce the Tudor rose.

EDWARD IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483)

Edward IV was able to restore order, despite the temporary return to the

throne of Henry VI (reigned 1470-71, during which time Edward fled to the

Continent in exile) supported by the Earl of Warwick, 'the Kingmaker', who

had previously supported Edward and who was killed at the Battle of Barnet

in 1471. Edward also made peace with France; by a shrewd display of force

to exert pressure, Edward reached a profitable agreement with Louis XI at

Picquigny in 1475. At home, Edward relied heavily on his own personal

control in government, reviving the ancient custom of sitting in person 'on

the bench' (i.e. in judgement) to enforce justice. He sacked Lancastrian

office-holders and used his financial acumen to introduce tight management

of royal revenues to reduce the Crown's debt. Building closer relations

with the merchant community, he encouraged commercial treaties; he

successfully traded in wool on his own account to restore his family's

fortunes and enable the King to 'live of his own', paying the costs of the

country's administration from the Crown Estates profits and freeing him

from dependence on subsidies from Parliament. Edward rebuilt St George's

Chapel at Windsor (possibly seeing it as a mausoleum for the Yorkists, as

he was buried there) and a new great hall at Eltham Palace. Edward

collected illuminated manuscripts - his is the only intact medieval royal

collection to survive (in the British Library) - and patronised the new

invention of printing. Edward died in 1483, leaving by his marriage to

Elizabeth Woodville a 12-year-old son, Edward, to succeed him.

EDWARD V (April-June 1483)

Edward V was a minor, and his uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was made

Protector. Richard had been loyal throughout to his brother Edward IV

including the events of 1470-71, Edward's exile and their brother's

rebellion (the Duke of Clarence, who was executed in 1478 by drowning,

reputedly in a barrel of Malmsey wine). However, he was suspicious of the

Woodville faction, possibly believing they were the cause of Clarence's

death. In response to an attempt by Elizabeth Woodville to take power,

Richard and Edward V entered London in May, with Edward's coronation fixed

for 22 June. However, in mid-June Richard assumed the throne as Richard III

(reigned 1483-85). Edward V and his younger brother Richard were declared

illegitimate, taken to the Royal apartments at the Tower of London (then a

Royal residence) and never seen again. (Skeletons, allegedly theirs, found

there in 1674 were later buried in Westminster Abbey.)

RICHARD III (1483-1485)

Richard III usurped the throne from the young Edward V, who disappeared

with his younger brother while under their ambitious uncle's supposed

protection. On becoming king, Richard attempted genuine reconciliation

with the Yorkists by showing consideration to Lancastrians purged from

office by Edward IV, and moved Henry VI's body to St George's Chapel at

Windsor. The first laws written entirely in English were passed during his

reign. In 1484, Richard's only legitimate son Edward predeceased him.

Before becoming king, Richard had had a strong power base in the north, and

his reliance on northerners during his reign was to increase resentment in

the south. Richard concluded a truce with Scotland to reduce his

commitments in the north. Nevertheless, resentment against Richard grew. On

7 August 1485, Henry Tudor (a direct descendant through his mother Margaret

Beaufort, of John of Gaunt, one of Edward III's younger sons) landed at

Milford Haven in Wales to claim the throne. On 22 August, in a two-hour

battle at Bosworth, Henry's forces (assisted by Lord Stanley's private army

of around 7,000 which was deliberately posted so that he could join the

winning side) defeated Richard's larger army and Richard was killed. Buried

without a monument in Leicester, Richard's bones were scattered during the

English Reformation.

THE TUDORS

The five sovereigns of the Tudor dynasty are among the most well-known

figures in Royal history. Of Welsh origin, Henry VII succeeded in ending

the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York to found the

highly successful Tudor house. Henry VII, his son Henry VIII and his three

children Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I ruled for 118 eventful years.

During this period, England developed into one of the leading European

colonial powers, with men such as Sir Walter Raleigh taking part in the

conquest of the New World. Nearer to home, campaigns in Ireland brought the

country under strict English control.

Culturally and socially, the Tudor period saw many changes. The Tudor

court played a prominent part in the cultural Renaissance taking place in

Europe, nurturing all-round individuals such as William Shakespeare, Edmund

Spenser and Cardinal Wolsey. The Tudor period also saw the turbulence of

two changes of official religion, resulting in the martyrdom of many

innocent believers of both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. The fear of

Roman Catholicism induced by the Reformation was to last for several

centuries and to play an influential role in the history of the Succession.

THE TUDORS

1485 - 1603

HENRY VII = Elizabeth of York,

(1485–1509) dau. of EDWARD IV

Catherine of (1) = HENRY VIII = (2) Anne Boleyn, = (3)

Jane, dau. Margaret (1) = JAMES IV,

Aragon, dau. (1509–1547) dau. of Earl

of Sir John King of

Scotland

of FERDINAND V, of Wiltshire

Seymour

(1488–1513)

first King of Spain

ELIZABETH I

EDWARD VI JAMES V, = Mary of

MARY I (1547–1553)

(1558–1603) King of Scotland Lorraine,

(1553–1558)

(1513–1542) dau. of

Duke

of

Guise

MARY, =

Henry, Lord

Queen Darnley

of Scots

(1542–1567,

ex.1587)

THE STUARTS 1603 – 1714 Anne, dau. of =

JAMES VI OF SCOTLAND

FREDERICK II,

AND I OF ENGLAND

King of Denmark

(1567–1625)

(1603–1625)

Elizabeth = Frederick V, CHARLES I = Henrietta

Maria,

Elector Palatine (1625– dau.

of HENRY IV,

ex.1649)

King of France

Sophia = Ernest Augustus,

Elector of Hanover

CHARLES II

Mary = WILLIAM II JAMES II =

Anne Hyde,

(1649–1685)

of Orange (1685–

dau. of Earl of

GEORGE I

deposed 1688)

Clarendon

(1714–1727)

WILLIAM III = MARY II

ANNE

(1689–1702) (1689–1694)

(1702–1714)

Joint Sovereigns

HENRY VII (1485-1509 AD)

Henry VII, son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, was born in 1457.

He married Elizabeth of York in 1486, who bore him four children: Arthur,

Henry, Margaret and Mary. He died in 1509 after reigning 24 years.

Henry descended from John of Gaunt, through the latter's illicit affair

with Catherine Swynford; although he was a Lancastrian, he gained the

throne through personal battle. The Lancastrian victory at the Battle of

Bosworth in 1485 left Richard III slain in the field, York ambitions routed

and Henry proclaimed king. From the onset of his reign, Henry was

determined to bring order to England after 85 years of civil war. His

marriage to Elizabeth of York combined both the Lancaster and York factions

within the Tudor line, eliminating further discord in regards to

succession. He faced two insurrections during his reign, each centered

around "pretenders" who claimed a closer dynastic link to the Plantagenets

than Henry. Lambert Simnel posed as the Earl of Warwick, but his army was

defeated and he was eventually pardoned and forced to work in the king's

kitchen. Perkin Warbeck posed as Richard of York, Edward V's younger

brother (and co-prisoner in the Tower of London); Warbeck's support came

from the continent, and after repeated invasion attempts, Henry had him

imprisoned and executed.

Henry greatly strengthened the monarchy by employing many political

innovations to outmaneuver the nobility. The household staff rose beyond

mere servitude: Henry eschewed public appearances, therefore, staff members

were the few persons Henry saw on a regular basis. He created the Committee

of the Privy Council ,a forerunner of the modern cabinet) as an executive

advisory board; he established the Court of the Star Chamber to increase

royal involvement in civil and criminal cases; and as an alternative to a

revenue tax disbursement from Parliament, he imposed forced loans and

grants on the nobility. Henry's mistrust of the nobility derived from his

experiences in the Wars of the Roses - a majority remained dangerously

neutral until the very end. His skill at by-passing Parliament (and thus,

the will of the nobility) played a crucial role in his success at

renovating government.

Henry's political acumen was also evident in his handling of foreign

affairs. He played Spain off of France by arranging the marriage of his

eldest son, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and

Isabella. Arthur died within months and Henry secured a papal dispensation

for Catherine to marry Arthur's brother, the future Henry VIII; this single

event had the widest-ranging effect of all Henry's actions: Henry VIII's

annulment from Catherine was the impetus for the separation of the Church

of England from the body of Roman Catholicism. The marriage of Henry's

daughter, Margaret, to James IV of Scotland would also have later

repercussions, as the marriage connected the royal families of both England

and Scotland, leading the Stuarts to the throne after the extinction of the

Tudor dynasty. Henry encouraged trade and commerce by subsidizing ship

building and entering into lucrative trade agreements, thereby increasing

the wealth of both crown and nation.

Henry failed to appeal to the general populace: he maintained a distance

between king and subject. He brought the nobility to heel out of necessity

to transform the medieval government that he inherited into an efficient

tool for conducting royal business. Law and trade replaced feudal

obligation as the Middle Ages began evolving into the modern world. Francis

Bacon, in his history of Henry VII, described the king as such: "He was of

a high mind, and loved his own will and his own way; as one that revered

himself, and would reign indeed. Had he been a private man he would have

been termed proud: But in a wise Prince, it was but keeping of distance;

which indeed he did towards all; not admitting any near or full approach

either to his power or to his secrets. For he was governed by none."

HENRY VIII (1509-47 AD)

Henry VIII, born in 1491, was the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth

of York. The significance of Henry's reign is, at times, overshadowed by

his six marriages: dispensing with these forthwith enables a deeper search

into the major themes of the reign. He married Catherine of Aragon (widow

of his brother, Arthur) in 1509, divorcing her in 1533; the union produced

one daughter, Mary. Henry married the pregnant Anne Boleyn in 1533; she

gave him another daughter, Elizabeth, but was executed for infidelity (a

treasonous charge in the king's consort) in May 1536. He married Jane

Seymour by the end of the same month, who died giving birth to Henry's lone

male heir, Edward, in October 1536. Early in 1540, Henry arranged a

marriage with Anne of Cleves, after viewing Hans Holbein's beautiful

portrait of the German princess. In person, alas, Henry found her homely

and the marriage was never consummated. In July 1540, he married the

adulterous Catherine Howard - she was executed for infidelity in March

1542. Catherine Parr became his wife in 1543, providing for the needs of

both Henry and his children until his death in 1547.

The court life initiated by his father evolved into a cornerstone of

Tudor government in the reign of Henry VIII. After his father's staunch,

stolid rule, the energetic, youthful and handsome king avoided governing in

person, much preferring to journey the countryside hunting and reviewing

his subjects. Matters of state were left in the hands of others, most

notably Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York. Cardinal Wolsey virtually ruled

England until his failure to secure the papal annulment that Henry needed

to marry Anne Boleyn in 1533. Wolsey was quite capable as Lord Chancellor,

but his own interests were served more than that of the king: as powerful

as he was, he still was subject to Henry's favor - losing Henry's

confidence proved to be his downfall. The early part of Henry's reign,

however, saw the young king invade France, defeat Scottish forces at the

Battle of Foldden Field (in which James IV of Scotland was slain), and

write a treatise denouncing Martin Luther's Reformist ideals, for which the

pope awarded Henry the title "Defender of the Faith".

The 1530's witnessed Henry's growing involvement in government, and a

series of events which greatly altered England, as well as the whole of

Western Christendom: the separation of the Church of England from Roman

Catholicism. The separation was actually a by-product of Henry's obsession

with producing a male heir; Catherine of Aragon failed to produce a male

and the need to maintain dynastic legitimacy forced Henry to seek an

annulment from the pope in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Wolsey tried

repeatedly to secure a legal annulment from Pope Clement VII, but Clement

was beholden to the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and nephew of Catherine.

Henry summoned the Reformation Parliament in 1529, which passed 137

statutes in seven years and exercised an influence in political and

ecclesiastic affairs which was unknown to feudal parliaments. Religious

reform movements had already taken hold in England, but on a small scale:

the Lollards had been in existence since the mid-fourteenth century and the

ideas of Luther and Zwingli circulated within intellectual groups, but

continental Protestantism had yet to find favor with the English people.

The break from Rome was accomplished through law, not social outcry; Henry,

as Supreme Head of the Church of England, acknowledged this by slight

alterations in worship ritual instead of a wholesale reworking of religious

dogma. England moved into an era of "conformity of mind" with the new royal

supremacy (much akin to the absolutism of France's Louis XIV): by 1536, all

ecclesiastical and government officials were required to publicly approve

of the break with Rome and take an oath of loyalty. The king moved away

from the medieval idea of ruler as chief lawmaker and overseer of civil

behavior, to the modern idea of ruler as the ideological icon of the state.

The remainder of Henry's reign was anticlimactic. Anne Boleyn lasted only

three years before her execution; she was replaced by Jane Seymour, who

laid Henry's dynastic problems to rest with the birth of Edward VI.

Fragmented noble factions involved in the Wars of the Roses found

themselves reduced to vying for the king's favor in court. Reformist

factions won the king's confidence and vastly benefiting from Henry's

dissolution of the monasteries, as monastic lands and revenues went either

to the crown or the nobility. The royal staff continued the rise in status

that began under Henry VII, eventually to rival the power of the nobility.

Two men, in particular, were prominent figures through the latter stages of

Henry's reign: Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer. Cromwell, an efficient

administrator, succeeded Wolsey as Lord Chancellor, creating new

governmental departments for the varying types of revenue and establishing

parish priest's duty of recording births, baptisms, marriages and deaths.

Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, dealt with and guided changes in

ecclesiastical policy and oversaw the dissolution of the monasteries.

Henry VIII built upon the innovations instituted by his father. The break

with Rome, coupled with an increase in governmental bureaucracy, led to the

royal supremacy that would last until the execution of Charles I and the

establishment of the Commonwealth one hundred years after Henry's death.

Henry was beloved by his subjects, facing only one major insurrection, the

Pilgrimage of Grace, enacted by the northernmost counties in retaliation to

the break with Rome and the poor economic state of the region. History

remembers Henry in much the same way as Piero Pasqualigo, a Venetian

ambassador: "... he is in every respect a most accomplished prince."

EDWARD VI (1547-1553 AD)

Edward VI, son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, was born in 1537. He

ascended the throne at age nine, upon the death of his father. He was

betrothed to his cousin, Mary Queen of Scots, but deteriorating English-

Scot relations prohibited their marriage. The frail, Protestant boy died of

consumption at age sixteen having never married. Edward's reign was beset

by problems from the onset. Ascending the throne while stillin his minority

presented a backdrop for factional in fighting and power plays. Henry VIII,

in his last days, sought to eliminate this potential problem by decreeing

that a Council of Regency would govern until the child came of age, but

Edward Seymour (Edward VI's uncle) gained the upper hand. The Council

offered Seymour the Protectorship of the realm and the Dukedom of Somerset;

he genuinely cared for both the boy and the realm, but used the

Protectorship, as well as Edward's religious radicalism, to further his

Protestant interests. The Book of Common Prayer, the eloquent work of

Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, was instituted in 1549 as a handbook to the new

style of worship that skated controversial issues in an effort to pacify

Catholics. Henrician treason and heresy laws were repealed, transforming

England into a haven for continental heretics. Catholics were pleased with

the softer version of Protestantism, but radical Protestants clamored for

further reforms, adding to the ever-present factional discord. Economic

hardship plagued England during Edward's rule and foreign relations were in

a state of disarray. The new faith and the dissolution of the monasteries

left a considerable amount of ecclesiastical officials out of work, at a

time when unemployment soared; enclosure of monastic lands deprived many

peasants of their means of subsistence. The coinage lost value as new coins

were minted from inferior metals, as specie from the New World flooded

English markets. A French/Scottish alliance threatened England, prompting

Somerset to invade Scotland, where Scottish forces were trounced at Pinkie.

Then general unrest and factional maneuvering proved Somerset's undoing; he

was executed in September 1552. Thus began one of the most corrupt eras of

English political history. The author of this corruption was the Earl of

Warwick, John Dudley. Dudley was an ambitious political survivor driven by

the desire to become the largest landowner in England. Dudley coerced

Edward by claiming that the boy had reached manhood on his 12th birthday

and was now ready to rule; Dudley also held Edward's purse strings. Dudley

was created Duke of Northumberland and virtually ruled England, although he

had no official title. The Council, under his leadership, systematically

confiscated church territories, as the recent wave of radical Protestantism

seemed a logical, and justifiable, continuation of Henrician reform.

Northumberland's ambitions grew in proportion to his gains of power: he

desperately sought to connect himself to the royal family. Northumberland

was given the opportunity to indulge in king making - the practice by which

an influential noble named the next successor, such as Richard Neville

during the Wars of the Roses - when Edward was diagnosed with consumption

in January 1553. Henry VIII named the line of succession in his will;next

in line after Edward were his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, followed by the

descendants of Henry's sister, Mary: Frances Grey and her children.

Northumberland convinced Edward that his Catholic sister, Mary, would ruin

the Protestant reforms enacted throughout the reign; in actuality, he knew

Mary would restore Catholicism and return the confiscated Church

territories which were making the Council very rich. Northumberland's

appeal to Edward's radicalism worked as intended: the dying lad declared

his sisters to be bastards and passed the succession to Frances Grey's

daughter, Lady Jane Grey, one of the boy's only true friends.

Northumberland impelled the Greys to consent to a marriage between his son,

Guildford and Lady Jane. Edward died on July 6, 1553, leaving a disputed

succession. Jane, against her wishes, was declared queen by the Council.

Mary retreated to Framlingham in Suffolk and claimed the throne.

Northumberland took an army to capture Mary, but bungled the escapade. The

Council abandoned Northumberland as Mary collected popular support and rode

triumphantly into London. Jane after a reign of only nine days, was

imprisoned in the Tower of London until her 1554 execution at the hands of

her cousin Mary. Edward was a highly intellectual and pious lad who fell

prey to the machinations of his powerful Council of Regency. His frailty

led to an early death. Had he lived into manhood, he potentially could have

become one of England's greatest kings. Jane Austen wrote, "This Man was on

the whole of a very amiable character...", to which Beckett added, " as

docile as a lamb, if indeed his gentleness did not amount to absolute

sheepishness."

LADY JANE GREY (10-19 July 1553)

The Accession of Lady Jane Grey was engineered by the powerful Duke of

Northumberland, President of the King's Council, in the interests of

promoting his own dynastic line. Northumberland persuaded the sickly Edward

VI to name Lady Jane Grey as his heir. As one of Henry VIII's great-nieces,

the young girl was a genuine claimant to the throne. Northumberland then

married his own son, Lord Guilford Dudley, to Lady Jane. On the death of

Edward, Jane assumed the throne and her claim was recognised by the

Council. Despite this, the country rallied to Mary, Catherine of Aragon's

daughter and a devout Roman Catholic. Jane reigned for only nine days and

was later executed with her husband in 1554.

MARY I (1553-1558)

Mary I was the first Queen Regnant (that is, a queen reigning in her own

right rather than a queen through marriage to a king). Courageous and

stubborn, her character was moulded by her earlier years: an Act of

Parliament in 1533 had declared her illegitimate and removed her from the

succession to the throne (she was reinstated in 1544, but her half-brother

Edward removed her from the succession once more shortly before his death),

whilst she was pressurised to give up the Mass and acknowledge the English

Protestant Church.

Mary restored papal supremacy in England, abandoned the title of Supreme

Head of the Church, reintroduced Roman Catholic bishops and began the slow

reintroduction of monastic orders. Mary also revived the old heresy laws to

secure the religious conversion of the country; heresy was regarded as a

religious and civil offence amounting to treason (to believe in a different

religion from the Sovereign was an act of defiance and disloyalty). As a

result, around 300 Protestant heretics were burnt in three years - apart

from eminent Protestant clergy such as Cranmer (a former archbishop and

author of two Books of Common Prayer), Latimer and Ridley, these heretics

were mostly poor and self-taught people. Apart from making Mary deeply

unpopular, such treatment demonstrated that people were prepared to die for

the Protestant settlement established in Henry's reign. The progress of

Mary's conversion of the country was also limited by the vested interests

of the aristocracy and gentry who had bought the monastic lands sold off

after the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and who refused to return these

possessions voluntarily as Mary invited them to do.

Aged 37 at her accession, Mary wished to marry and have children, thus

leaving a Catholic heir to consolidate her religious reforms, and removing

her half-sister Elizabeth (a focus for Protestant opposition) from direct

succession. Mary's decision to marry Philip, King of Spain from 1556, in

1554 was very unpopular; the protest from the Commons prompted Mary's reply

that Parliament was 'not accustomed to use such language to the Kings of

England' and that in her marriage 'she would choose as God inspired her'.

The marriage was childless, Philip spent most of it on the continent,

England obtained no share in the Spanish monopolies in New World trade and

the alliance with Spain dragged England into a war with France. Popular

discontent grew when Calais, the last vestige of England's possessions in

France dating from William the Conqueror's time, was captured by the French

in 1558. Dogged by ill health, Mary died later that year, possibly from

cancer, leaving the crown to her half-sister Elizabeth.

ELIZABETH I (1558-1603)

Elizabeth I - the last Tudor monarch - was born at Greenwich on 7

September 1533, the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne

Boleyn. Her early life was full of uncertainties, and her chances of

succeeding to the throne seemed very slight once her half-brother Edward

was born in 1537. She was then third in line behind her Roman Catholic half-

sister, Princess Mary. Roman Catholics, indeed, always considered her

illegitimate and she only narrowly escaped execution in the wake of a

failed rebellion against Queen Mary in 1554.

Elizabeth succeeded to the throne on her half-sister's death in November

1558. She was very well-educated (fluent in six languages), and had

inherited intelligence, determination and shrewdness from both parents. Her

45-year reign is generally considered one of the most glorious in English

history. During it a secure Church of England was established. Its

doctrines were laid down in the 39 Articles of 1563, a compromise between

Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Elizabeth herself refused to 'make

windows into men's souls ... there is only one Jesus Christ and all the

rest is a dispute over trifles'; she asked for outward uniformity. Most of

her subjects accepted the compromise as the basis of their faith, and her

church settlement probably saved England from religious wars like those

which France suffered in the second half of the 16th century.

Although autocratic and capricious, Elizabeth had astute political

judgement and chose her ministers well; these included Burghley (Secretary

of State), Hatton (Lord Chancellor) and Walsingham (in charge of

intelligence and also a Secretary of State). Overall, Elizabeth's

administration consisted of some 600 officials administering the great

offices of state, and a similar number dealing with the Crown lands (which

funded the administrative costs). Social and economic regulation and law

and order remained in the hands of the sheriffs at local level, supported

by unpaid justices of the peace.

Elizabeth's reign also saw many brave voyages of discovery, including

those of Francis Drake, Walter Raleigh and Humphrey Gilbert, particularly

to the Americas. These expeditions prepared England for an age of

colonisation and trade expansion, which Elizabeth herself recognised by

establishing the East India Company in 1600.

The arts flourished during Elizabeth's reign. Country houses such as

Longleat and Hardwick Hall were built, miniature painting reached its high

point, theatres thrived - the Queen attended the first performance of

Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The image of Elizabeth's reign is

one of triumph and success. The Queen herself was often called 'Gloriana',

'Good Queen Bess' and 'The Virgin Queen'. Investing in expensive clothes

and jewellery (to look the part, like all contemporary sovereigns), she

cultivated this image by touring the country in regional visits known as

'progresses', often riding on horseback rather than by carriage. Elizabeth

made at least 25 progresses during her reign.

However, Elizabeth's reign was one of considerable danger and difficulty

for many, with threats of invasion from Spain through Ireland, and from

France through Scotland. Much of northern England was in rebellion in 1569-

70. A papal bull of 1570 specifically released Elizabeth's subjects from

their allegiance, and she passed harsh laws against Roman Catholics after

plots against her life were discovered. One such plot involved Mary, Queen

of Scots, who had fled to England in 1568 after her second husband's murder

and her subsequent marriage to a man believed to have been involved in his

murder. As a likely successor to Elizabeth, Mary spent 19 years as

Elizabeth's prisoner because Mary was the focus for rebellion and possible

assassination plots, such as the Babington Plot of 1586. Mary was also a

temptation for potential invaders such as Philip II. In a letter of 1586 to

Mary, Elizabeth wrote, 'You have planned ... to take my life and ruin my

kingdom ... I never proceeded so harshly against you.' Despite Elizabeth's

reluctance to take drastic action, on the insistence of Parliament and her

advisers, Mary was tried, found guilty and executed in 1587.

In 1588, aided by bad weather, the English navy scored a great victory

over the Spanish invasion fleet of around 130 ships - the 'Armada'. The

Armada was intended to overthrow the Queen and re-establish Roman

Catholicism by conquest, as Philip II believed he had a claim to the

English throne through his marriage to Mary.

During Elizabeth's long reign, the nation also suffered from high prices

and severe economic depression, especially in the countryside, during the

1590s. The war against Spain was not very successful after the Armada had

been beaten and, together with other campaigns, it was very costly. Though

she kept a tight rein on government expenditure, Elizabeth left large debts

to her successor. Wars during Elizabeth's reign are estimated to have cost

over £5 million (at the prices of the time) which Crown revenues could not

match - in 1588, for example, Elizabeth's total annual revenue amounted to

some £392,000. Despite the combination of financial strains and prolonged

war after 1588, Parliament was not summoned more often. There were only 16

sittings of the Commons during Elizabeth's reign, five of which were in the

period 1588-1601. Although Elizabeth freely used her power to veto

legislation, she avoided confrontation and did not attempt to define

Parliament's constitutional position and rights.

Elizabeth chose never to marry. If she had chosen a foreign prince, he

would have drawn England into foreign policies for his own advantages (as

in her sister Mary's marriage to Philip of Spain); marrying a fellow

countryman could have drawn the Queen into factional infighting. Elizabeth

used her marriage prospects as a political tool in foreign and domestic

policies. However, the 'Virgin Queen' was presented as a selfless woman who

sacrificed personal happiness for the good of the nation, to which she was,

in essence, 'married'. Late in her reign, she addressed Parliament in the

so-called 'Golden Speech' of 1601 when she told MPs: 'There is no jewel, be

it of never so high a price, which I set before this jewel; I mean your

love.' She seems to have been very popular with the vast majority of her

subjects.

Overall, Elizabeth's always shrewd and, when necessary, decisive

leadership brought successes during a period of great danger both at home

and abroad. She died at Richmond Palace on 24 March 1603, having become a

legend in her lifetime. The date of her accession was a national holiday

for two hundred years.

THE STUARTS

The Stuarts were the first kings of the United Kingdom. King James I of

England who began the period was also King James VI of Scotland, thus

combining the two thrones for the first time.

The Stuart dynasty reigned in England and Scotland from 1603 to 1714, a

period which saw a flourishing Court culture but also much upheaval and

instability, of plague, fire and war. It was an age of intense religious

debate and radical politics. Both contributed to a bloody civil war in the

mid-seventeenth century between Crown and Parliament (the Cavaliers and the

Roundheads), resulting in a parliamentary victory for Oliver Cromwell and

the dramatic execution of King Charles I. There was a short-lived republic,

the first time that the country had experienced such an event. The

Restoration of the Crown was soon followed by another 'Glorious'

Revolution. William and Mary of Orange ascended the throne as joint

monarchs and defenders of Protestantism, followed by Queen Anne, the second

of James II's daughters.

The end of the Stuart line with the death of Queen Anne led to the

drawing up of the Act of Settlement in 1701, which provided that only

Protestants could hold the throne. The next in line according to the

provisions of this act was George of Hanover, yet Stuart princes remained

in the wings. The Stuart legacy was to linger on in the form of claimants

to the Crown for another century.

JAMES I (1603-25 AD)

James I was born in 1566 to Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband,

Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley. He descended from the Tudors through Margaret,

daughter of Henry VII : both Mary Queen of Scots and Henry Stewart were

grandchildren of Margaret Tudor. James ascended the Scottish throne upon

the abdication of his mother in 1567, but Scotland was ruled by regent

untilJames reached his majority. He married Anne of Denmark in 1589, who

bore him three sons and four daughters: Henry, Elizabeth, Margaret,

Charles, Robert, Mary and Sophia. He was named successor to the English

throne by his cousin, Elizabeth I and ascended that throne in 1603. James

died of a stroke in 1625 after ruling Scotland for 58 years and England for

22 years.

James was profoundly affected by his years as a boy in Scottish court.

Murder and intrigue had plagued the Scottish throne throughout the reigns

of his mother and grandfather (James V) and had no less bearing during

James's rule. His father had been butchered mere months after James' birth

by enemies of Mary and Mary, because of her indiscretions and Catholic

faith, was forced to abdicate the throne. Thus, James developed a guarded

manner. He was thrilled to take the English crown and leave the strictures

and poverty of the Scottish court.

James' twenty-nine years of Scottish kingship did little to prepare him

for the English monarchy: England and Scotland, rivals for superiority on

the island since the first emigration of the Anglo-Saxon races, virtually

hated each other. This inherent mistrust, combined with Catholic-Protestant

and Episcopal-Puritan tensions, severely limited James' prospects of a

truly successful reign. His personality also caused problems: he was witty

and well-read, fiercely believed in the divine right of kingship and his

own importance, but found great difficulty in gaining acceptance from an

English society that found his rough-hewn manners and natural paranoia

quite unbecoming. James saw little use for Parliament. His extravagant

spending habits and nonchalant ignoring of the nobility's grievances kept

king and Parliament constantly at odds. He came to the thrown at the zenith

of monarchical power, but never truly grasped the depth and scope of that

power.

Religious dissension was the basis of an event that confirmed and fueled

James' paranoia: the Gunpowder Plot of November 5, 1605. Guy Fawkes and

four other Catholic dissenters were caught attempting to blow up the House

of Lords on a day in which the king was to open the session. The

conspirators were executed, but a fresh wave of anti-Catholic sentiments

washed across England. James also disliked the Puritans who became

excessive in their demands on the king, resulting in the first wave of

English immigrants to North America. James, however, did manage to

commission an Authorized Version of the Bible, printed in English in 1611.

The relationship between king and Parliament steadily eroded. Extravagant

spending (particularly on James' favorites), inflation and bungled foreign

policies discredited James in the eyes of Parliament. Parliament flatly

refused to disburse funds to a king who ignored their concerns and were

annoyed by rewards lavished on favorites and great amounts spent on

decoration. James awarded over 200 peerages (landed titles) as,

essentially, bribes designed to win loyalty, the most controversial of

which was his creation of George Villiers (his closest advisor and

homosexual partner) as Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham was highly

influential in foreign policy, which failed miserably. James tried to

kindle Spanish relations by seeking a marriage between his son Charles and

the Spanish Infanta (who was less than receptive to the clumsy overtures of

Charles and Buckingham), and by executing Sir Walter Raleigh at the behest

of Spain.

James was not wholly unsuccessful as king, but his Scottish background

failed to translate well into a changing English society. He is described,

albeit humorously, in 1066 and All That, as such: "James I slobbered at the

mouth and had favourites; he was thus a bad king"; Sir Anthony Weldon made

a more somber observation: "He was very crafty and cunning in petty things,

as the circumventing any great man, the change of a Favourite, &c. inasmuch

as a very wise man was wont to say, he believed him the very wisest fool in

Christendom."

CHARLES I (1625-49)

Charles I was born in Fife on 19 November 1600, the second son of James

VI of Scotland (from 1603 also James I of England) and Anne of Denmark. He

became heir to the throne on the death of his brother, Prince Henry, in

1612. He succeeded, as the second Stuart King of England, in 1625.

Controversy and disputes dogged Charles throughout his reign. They

eventually led to civil wars, first with the Scots from 1637 and later in

England (1642-46 and 1648). The Civil Wars deeply divided people at the

time, and historians still disagree about the real causes of the conflict,

but it is clear that Charles was not a successful ruler.

Charles was reserved (he had a residual stammer), self-righteous and had

a high concept of royal authority, believing in the divine right of kings.

He was a good linguist and a sensitive man of refined tastes. He spent a

lot on the arts, inviting the artists Van Dyck and Rubens to work in

England, and buying a great collection of paintings by Raphael and Titian

(this collection was later dispersed under Cromwell). His expenditure on

his court and his picture collection greatly increased the crown's debts.

Indeed, crippling lack of money was a key problem for both the early Stuart

monarchs.

Charles was also deeply religious. He favoured the high Anglican form of

worship, with much ritual, while many of his subjects, particularly in

Scotland, wanted plainer forms. Charles found himself ever more in

disagreement on religious and financial matters with many leading citizens.

Having broken an engagement to the Spanish infanta, he had married a Roman

Catholic, Henrietta Maria of France, and this only made matters worse.

Although Charles had promised Parliament in 1624 that there would be no

advantages for recusants (people refusing to attend Church of England

services), were he to marry a Roman Catholic bride, the French insisted on

a commitment to remove all disabilities upon Roman Catholic subjects.

Charles's lack of scruple was shown by the fact that this commitment was

secretly added to the marriage treaty, despite his promise to Parliament.

Charles had inherited disagreements with Parliament from his father, but

his own actions (particularly engaging in ill-fated wars with France and

Spain at the same time) eventually brought about a crisis in 1628-29. Two

expeditions to France failed - one of which had been led by Buckingham, a

royal favourite of both James I and Charles I, who had gained political

influence and military power. Such was the general dislike of Buckingham,

that he was impeached by Parliament in 1628, although he was murdered by a

fanatic before he could lead the second expedition to France. The political

controversy over Buckingham demonstrated that, although the monarch's right

to choose his own Ministers was accepted as an essential part of the royal

prerogative, Ministers had to be acceptable to Parliament or there would be

repeated confrontations. The King's chief opponent in Parliament until 1629

was Sir John Eliot, who was finally imprisoned in the Tower of London until

his death in 1632.

Tensions between the King and Parliament centred around finances, made

worse by the costs of war abroad, and by religious suspicions at home

(Charles's marriage was seen as ominous, at a time when plots against

Elizabeth I and the Gunpowder Plot in James I's reign were still fresh in

the collective memory, and when the Protestant cause was going badly in the

war in Europe). In the first four years of his rule, Charles was faced with

the alternative of either obtaining parliamentary funding and having his

policies questioned by argumentative Parliaments who linked the issue of

supply to remedying their grievances, or conducting a war without subsidies

from Parliament. Charles dismissed his fourth Parliament in March 1629 and

decided to make do without either its advice or the taxes which it alone

could grant legally.

Although opponents later called this period 'the Eleven Years' Tyranny',

Charles's decision to rule without Parliament was technically within the

King's royal prerogative, and the absence of a Parliament was less of a

grievance to many people than the efforts to raise revenue by non-

parliamentary means. Charles's leading advisers, including William Laud,

Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Earl of Strafford, were efficient but

disliked. For much of the 1630s, the King gained most of the income he

needed from such measures as impositions, exploitation of forest laws,

forced loans, wardship and, above all, ship money (extended in 1635 from

ports to the whole country). These measures made him very unpopular,

alienating many who were the natural supporters of the Crown.

Scotland (which Charles had left at the age of 3, returning only for his

coronation in 1633) proved the catalyst for rebellion. Charles's attempt to

impose a High Church liturgy and prayer book in Scotland had prompted a

riot in 1637 in Edinburgh which escalated into general unrest. Charles had

to recall Parliament; however, the Short Parliament of April 1640 queried

Charles's request for funds for war against the Scots and was dissolved

within weeks. The Scots occupied Newcastle and, under the treaty of Ripon,

stayed in occupation of Northumberland and Durham and they were to be paid

a subsidy until their grievances were redressed.

Charles was finally forced to call another Parliament in November 1640.

This one, which came to be known as The Long Parliament, started with the

imprisonment of Laud and Strafford (the latter was executed within six

months, after a Bill of Attainder which did not allow for a defence), and

the abolition of the King's Council (Star Chamber), and moved on to declare

ship money and other fines illegal. The King agreed that Parliament could

not be dissolved without its own consent, and the Triennial Act of 1641

meant that no more than three years could elapse between Parliaments.

The Irish uprising of October 1641 raised tensions between the King and

Parliament over the command of the Army. Parliament issued a Grand

Remonstrance repeating their grievances, impeached 12 bishops and attempted

to impeach the Queen. Charles responded by entering the Commons in a failed

attempt to arrest five Members of Parliament, who had fled before his

arrival. Parliament reacted by passing a Militia Bill allowing troops to be

raised only under officers approved by Parliament. Finally, on 22 August

1642 at Nottingham, Charles raised the Royal Standard calling for loyal

subjects to support him (Oxford was to be the King's capital during the

war). The Civil War, what Sir William Waller (a Parliamentary general and

moderate) called 'this war without an enemy', had begun.

The Battle of Edgehill in October 1642 showed that early on the fighting

was even. Broadly speaking, Charles retained the north, west and south-west

of the country, and Parliament had London, East Anglia and the south-east,

although there were pockets of resistance everywhere, ranging from solitary

garrisons to whole cities. However, the Navy sided with Parliament (which

made continental aid difficult), and Charles lacked the resources to hire

substantial mercenary help.

Parliament had entered an armed alliance with the predominant Scottish

Presbyterian group under the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643, and from

1644 onwards Parliament's armies gained the upper hand - particularly with

the improved training and discipline of the New Model Army. The Self-

Denying Ordinance was passed to exclude Members of Parliament from holding

army commands, thereby getting rid of vacillating or incompetent earlier

Parliamentary generals. Under strong generals like Sir Thomas Fairfax and

Oliver Cromwell, Parliament won victories at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby

(1645). The capture of the King's secret correspondence after Naseby showed

the extent to which he had been seeking help from Ireland and from the

Continent, which alienated many moderate supporters.

In May 1646, Charles placed himself in the hands of the Scottish Army

(who handed him to the English Parliament after nine months in return for

arrears of payment - the Scots had failed to win Charles's support for

establishing Presbyterianism in England). Charles did not see his action as

surrender, but as an opportunity to regain lost ground by playing one group

off against another; he saw the monarchy as the source of stability and

told parliamentary commanders 'you cannot be without me: you will fall to

ruin if I do not sustain you'. In Scotland and Ireland, factions were

arguing, whilst in England there were signs of division in Parliament

between the Presbyterians and the Independents, with alienation from the

Army (where radical doctrines such as that of the Levellers were

threatening commanders' authority). Charles's negotiations continued from

his captivity at Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight (to which he had

'escaped' from Hampton Court in November 1647) and led to the Engagement

with the Scots, under which the Scots would provide an army for Charles in

exchange for the imposition of the Covenant on England. This led to the

second Civil War of 1648, which ended with Cromwell's victory at Preston in

August.

The Army, concluding that permanent peace was impossible whilst Charles

lived, decided that the King must be put on trial and executed. In

December, Parliament was purged, leaving a small rump totally dependent on

the Army, and the Rump Parliament established a High Court of Justice in

the first week of January 1649. On 20 January, Charles was charged with

high treason 'against the realm of England'. Charles refused to plead,

saying that he did not recognise the legality of the High Court (it had

been established by a Commons purged of dissent, and without the House of

Lords - nor had the Commons ever acted as a judicature).

The King was sentenced to death on 27 January. Three days later, Charles

was beheaded on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall,

London. The King asked for warm clothing before his execution: 'the season

is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine

proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation.' On the scaffold, he

repeated his case: 'I must tell you that the liberty and freedom [of the

people] consists in having of Government, those laws by which their life

and their goods may be most their own. It is not for having share in

Government, Sir, that is nothing pertaining to them. A subject and a

sovereign are clean different things. If I would have given way to an

arbitrary way, for to have all laws changed according to the Power of the

Sword, I needed not to have come here, and therefore I tell you ... that I

am the martyr of the people.' His final words were 'I go from a corruptible

to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be.'

The King was buried on 9 February at Windsor, rather than Westminster

Abbey, to avoid public disorder. To avoid the automatic succession of

Charles I's son Charles, an Act was passed on 30 January forbidding the

proclaiming of another monarch. On 7 February 1649, the office of King was

formally abolished.

The Civil Wars were essentially confrontations between the monarchy and

Parliament over the definitions of the powers of the monarchy and

Parliament's authority. These constitutional disagreements were made worse

by religious animosities and financial disputes. Both sides claimed that

they stood for the rule of law, yet civil war was by definition a matter of

force. Charles I, in his unwavering belief that he stood for constitutional

and social stability, and the right of the people to enjoy the benefits of

that stability, fatally weakened his position by failing to negotiate a

compromise with Parliament and paid the price. To many, Charles was seen as

a martyr for his people and, to this day, wreaths of remembrance are laid

by his supporters on the anniversary of his death at his statue, which

faces down Whitehall to the site of his execution.

THE COMMONWEALTH INTERREGNUM (1649-1660)

Cromwell's convincing military successes at Drogheda in Ireland (1649),

Dunbar in Scotland (1650) and Worcester in England (1651) forced Charles

I's son, Charles, into foreign exile despite being accepted as King in

Scotland.

From 1649 to 1660, England was therefore a republic during a period known

as the Interregnum ('between reigns'). A series of political experiments

followed, as the country's rulers tried to redefine and establish a

workable constitution without a monarchy.

Throughout the Interregnum, Cromwell's relationship with Parliament was a

troubled one, with tensions over the nature of the constitution and the

issue of supremacy, control of the armed forces and debate over religious

toleration. In 1653 Parliament was dissolved, and under the Instrument of

Government, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector, later refusing the offer

of the throne. Further disputes with the House of Commons followed; at one

stage Cromwell resorted to regional rule by a number of the army's major

generals. After Cromwell's death in 1658, and the failure of his son

Richard's short-lived Protectorate, the army under General Monk invited

Charles I's son, Charles, to become King.

OLIVER CROMWELL (1649-1658)

Oliver Cromwell, born in Huntingdon in 1599, was a strict Puritan with a

Cambridge education when he went to London to represent his family in

Parliament. Clothed conservatively, he possessed a Puritan fervor and a

commanding voice, he quickly made a name for himself by serving in both the

Short Parliament (April 1640) and the Long Parliament (August 1640 through

April 1660). Charles I, pushing his finances to bankruptcy and trying to

force a new prayer book on Scotland, was badly beaten by the Scots, who

demanded £850 per day from the English until the two sides reached

agreement. Charles had no choice but to summon Parliament.

The Long Parliament, taking an aggressive stance, steadfastly refused to

authorize any funding until Charles was brought to heel. The Triennial Act

of 1641 assured the summoning of Parliament at least every three years, a

formidable challenge to royal prerogative. The Tudor institutions of fiscal

feudalism (manipulating antiquated feudal fealty laws to extract money),

the Court of the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission were

declared illegal by Act of Parliament later in 1641. A new era of

leadership from the House of Commons (backed by middle class merchants,

tradesmen and Puritans) had commenced. Parliament resented the insincerity

with which Charles settled with both them and the Scots, and despised his

links with Catholicism.

1642 was a banner year for Parliament. They stripped Charles of the last

vestiges of prerogative by abolishing episcopacy, placed the army and navy

directly under parliamentary supervision and declared this bill become law

even if the king refused his signature. Charles entered the House of

Commons (the first king to do so), intent on arresting John Pym, the leader

of Parliament and four others, but the five conspirators had already fled,

making the king appear inept. Charles traveled north to recruit an army and

raised his standard against the forces of Parliaments (Roundheads) at

Nottingham on August 22, 1642. England was again embroiled in civil war.

Cromwell added sixty horses to the Roundhead cause when war broke out. In

the 1642 Battle at Edge Hill, the Roundheads were defeated by the superior

Royalist (Cavalier) cavalry, prompting Cromwell to build a trained cavalry.

Cromwell proved most capable as a military leader. By the Battle of Marston

Moor in 1644, Cromwell's New Model Army had routed Cavalier forces and

Cromwell earned the nickname "Ironsides" in the process. Fighting lasted

until July 1645 at the final Cavalier defeat at Naseby. Within a year,

Charles surrendered to the Scots, who turned him over to Parliament. By

1646, England was ruled solely by Parliament, although the king was not

executed until 1649.

English society splintered into many factions: Levellers (intent on

eradicating economic castes), Puritans, Episcopalians, remnants of the

Cavaliers and other religious and political radicals argued over the fate

of the realm. The sole source of authority rest with the army, who moved

quickly to end the debates. In November 1648, the Long Parliament was

reduced to a "Rump" Parliament by the forced removal of 110 members of

Parliament by Cromwell's army, with another 160 members refusing to take

their seats in opposition to the action. The remainder, barely enough for a

quorum, embarked on an expedition of constitutional change. The Rump

dismantled the machinery of government, most of that, remained loyal to the

king, abolishing not only the monarchy, but also the Privy Council, Courts

of Exchequer and Admiralty and even the House of Lords. England was ruled

by an executive Council of State and the Rump Parliament, with various

subcommittees dealing with day-to-day affairs. Of great importance was the

administration in the shires and parishes: the machinery administering such

governments was left intact; ingrained habits of ruling and obeying

harkened back to monarchy.

With the death of the ancient constitution and Parliament in control,

attention was turned to crushing rebellions in the realm, as well as in

Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell forced submission from the nobility, muzzled

the press and defeated Leveller rebels in Burford. Annihilating the more

radical elements of revolution resulted in political conservatism, which

eventually led to the restoration of the monarchy. Cromwell's army

slaughtered over forty percent of the indigenous Irishmen, who clung

unyieldingly to Catholicism and loyalist sentiments; the remaining Irishmen

were forcibly transported to County Connaught with the Act of Settlement in

1653. Scottish Presbyterians fought for a Stuart restoration, in the person

of Charles II, but were handily defeated, ending the last remnants of civil

war. The army then turned its attention to internal matters.

The Rump devolved into a petty, self-perpetuating and unbending

oligarchy, which lost credibility in the eyes of the army. Cromwell ended

the Rump Parliament with great indignity on April 21, 1653, ordering the

house cleared at the point of a sword. The army called for a new Parliament

of Puritan saints, who proved as inept as the Rump. By 1655, Cromwell

dissolved his new Parliament, choosing to rule alone (much like Charles I

had done in 1629). The cost of keeping a standard army of 35,000 proved

financially incompatible with Cromwell's monetarily strapped government.

Two wars with the Dutch concerning trade abroad added to Cromwell's

financial burdens.

The military's solution was to form yet another version of Parliament. A

House of Peers was created, packed with Cromwell's supporters and with true

veto power, but the Commons proved most antagonistic towards Cromwell. The

monarchy was restored in all but name; Cromwell went from the title of Lord

General of the Army to that of Lord Protector of the Realm (the title of

king was suggested, but wisely rejected by Cromwell when a furor arose in

the military ranks). The Lord Protector died on September 3, 1658, naming

his son Richard as successor. With Cromwell's death, the Commonwealth

floundered and the monarchy was restored only two years later.

The failure of Cromwell and the Commonwealth was founded upon Cromwell

being caught between opposing forces. His attempts to placate the army, the

nobility, Puritans and Parliament resulted in the alienation of each group.

Leaving the political machinery of the parishes and shires untouched under

the new constitution was the height of inconsistency; Cromwell, the army

and Parliament were unable to make a clear separation from the ancient

constitution and traditional customs of loyalty and obedience to monarchy.

Lacey Baldwin Smith cast an astute judgment concerning the aims of the

Commonwealth: "When Commons was purged out of existence by a military force

of its own creation, the country learned a profound, if bitter, Lesson:

Parliament could no more exist without the crown than the crown without

Parliament. The ancient constitution had never been King and Parliament but

King in Parliament; when one element of that mystical union was destroyed,

the other ultimately perished."

Oliver Cromwell: Lord Protector of England (1599-1658)

There is definitely an association between John Knox and Oliver Cromwell.

Knox, in his book The Reformation of Scotland, outlined the whole process

without which the British model of government under Oliver Cromwell never

would not have been possible. Yet Knox was more consistently covenantal in

his thinking. He recognized that civil government is based on a covenant

between the magistrate (or the representative or king) and the populace.

His view was that when the magistrate defects from the covenant, it is the

duty of the people to overthrow him.

Cromwell was not a learned scholar, as was Knox, nevertheless God

elevated him to a greater leadership role. Oliver Cromwell was born into a

common family of English country Puritans having none of the advantages of

upbringing that would prepare him to be leader of a nation. Yet he had a

God-given ability to earn the loyalty and respect of men of genius who

served him throughout his lifetime. John Bunyan, author of Pilgrim's

Progress served under his command in the English Civil War, and John

Milton, who penned Paradise Lost, served as his personal secretary.

Cromwell's early years were ordinary, but after a conversion experience

at age 27, he was seized by a sense of divine destiny. He became suddenly

zealous for God. He was a country squire, a bronze-faced, callous-handed

man of property. He worked on his farm, prayed and fasted often and

occasionally exhorted the local congregation during church meetings. A

quiet, simple, serious-minded man, he spoke little. But when he broke his

silence, it was with great authority as he commanded obedience without

question or dispute. As a justice of the peace, he attracted attention to

himself by collaring loafers at a tavern and forcing them to join in

singing a hymn. This exploit together with quieting a disturbance among

some student factions at the neighboring town of Cambridge earned him the

respect of the Puritan locals and they sent him to Parliament as their

representative. There he attracted attention with his blunt, forcible

speech as a member of the Independent Party which was made up of Puritans.

The English people were bent upon the establishment of a democratic

parliamentary system of civil government and the elimination of the "Divine

Right of Kings." King Charles I, the tyrant who had long persecuted the

English Puritans by having their ears cut off and their noses slit for

defying his attempts to force episcopacy on their churches, finally clashed

with Parliament over a long ordeal with new and revolutionary ideas. The

Puritans, or "Roundheads" as they were called, finally led a civil war

against the King and his Cavaliers.

When he discerned the weaknesses of the Roundhead army, Cromwell made

himself captain of the cavalry. Cromwell had never been trained in war, but

from the very beginning he showed consummate genius as a general. Cromwell

understood that successful revolutions were always fought by farmers so he

gathered a thousand hand-picked Puritans - farmers and herdsmen - who were

used to the open fields. His regiment was nicknamed "Ironsides" and was

never beaten once, although they fought greatly outnumbered - at times

three to one.

It was an army the likes of which hadn't been seen since ancient Israel.

They would recite the Westminster Confession and march into battle singing

the Psalms of David striking terror into the heart of the enemy. Cromwell's

tactic was to strike with the cavalry through the advancing army at the

center, go straight through the lines and then circle to either the left or

the right milling the mass into a mob, creating confusion and utterly

destroying them. Cromwell amassed a body of troops and soon became

commander-in-chief. His discipline created the only body of regular troops

on either side who preached, prayed, paid fines for profanity and

drunkenness, and charged the enemy singing hymns - the strangest

abnormality in an age when every vice imaginable characterized soldiers and

mercenaries.

In the meantime, Charles I invited an Irish Catholic army to his aid, an

action for which he was tried for high treason and beheaded shortly after

the war. After executing the national sovereign, the Parliament assumed

power. The success of the new democracy in England was short-lived.

Cromwell found that a democratic parliamentary system run by squires and

lords oppressed the common people and was almost as corrupt as the

rulership of the deposed evil king. As Commander-in-Chief of the army, he

was able to seize rulership and served a term as "Lord Protector."

During the fifteen years in which Cromwell ruled, he drove pirates from

the Mediterranean Sea, set English captives free, and subdued any threat

from France, Spain and Italy. Cromwell made Great Britain a respected and

feared power the world over. Cromwell maintained a large degree of

tolerance for rival denominations. He stood for a national church without

bishops. The ministers might be Presbyterian, Independent or Baptist.

Dissenters were allowed to meet in gathered churches and even Roman

Catholics and Quakers were tolerated. He worked for reform of morals and

the improvement of education. He strove constantly to make England a

genuinely Christian nation and she enjoyed a brief "Golden Age" in her

history.

When Charles I was beheaded, the understanding was that he had broken

covenant with the people. The view of Cromwell and the Puritans was that

when the magistrate breaks covenant, then he may legitimately be deposed.

The Puritan understanding of the covenantal nature of government was the

foundation for American colonial government. This was true of Massachusetts

and Connecticut and to a lesser extent in the Southern colonies. When the

Mayflower Compact was written, the Pilgrims had a covenantal idea of the

nature of civil government. This was a foundation for later colonies

established throughout the 1600s. These covenants were influenced by what

Knox had done in Scotland and what the Puritans had done in England.

RICHARD CROMWELL (1658-1659)

The eldest surviving son of Oliver Cromwell, Richard was Lord Protector

of England from September 1658 to May 1659, but failed in his efforts to

lead the Commonwealth.

Richard served in the Parliaments of 1654 and 1656 and some government

posts, but showed little of his father's ability. Constitutional changes in

1657 allowed Cromwell to choose his successor. He began to prepare Richard,

appointing him to the council of state and the House of Lords.

He was proclaimed Lord Protector immediately after his father's death, on

3rd September 1658. Unfortunately, the Commonwealth had been held together

by his father and Richard was no Oliver. It was an unstable mixture of

zealous reform and a yearning for stability, Parliamentary authority and

military power.

Richard soon faced serious problems. The army were disillusioned with a

government that had grown increasingly ceremonious. They grew more restless

when Richard appointed himself commander in chief. A new Parliament was

elected in 1659 but a vacuum of power prompted the army council to seize

power. In April 1659 it forced Richard to dissolve Parliament.

The officers now recalled the Rump Parliament, dissolved by Oliver

Cromwell in 1653. It dismissed Richard as Lord Protector; he officially

abdicated in May. Yet the Rump was incapable of governing without financial

and military support and the army itself remained bitterly divided. George

Monck, one of the army's most capable officers, marched south from Scotland

to protect Parliament but, on arriving in London, realised that only the

restoration of Charles II could put an end to the political chaos that now

gripped the state.

Richard, having amassed large debts during his time in office, left for

Paris in 1660 to escape his creditors, living under the name of John

Clarke. After living in Geneva, he returned to England in around 1680,

where he lived quietly until his death.

CHARLES II (1660-85)

Although those who had signed Charles I's death warrant were punished

(nine regicides were put to death, and Cromwell's body was exhumed from

Westminster Abbey and buried in a common pit), Charles pursued a policy of

political tolerance and power-sharing. In April 1660, fresh elections had

been held and a Convention met with the House of Lords. Parliament invited

Charles to return, and he arrived at Dover on 25 May.

Despite the bitterness left from the Civil Wars and Charles I's

execution, there were few detailed negotiations over the conditions of

Charles II's restoration to the throne. Under the Declaration of Breda of

May 1660, Charles had promised pardons, arrears of Army pay, confirmation

of land purchases during the Interregnum and 'liberty of tender

consciences' in religious matters, but several issues remained unresolved.

However, the Militia Act of 1661 vested control of the armed forces in the

Crown, and Parliament agreed to an annual revenue of £1,200,000 (a

persistent deficit of £400,000-500,000 remained, leading to difficulties

for Charles in his foreign policy). The bishops were restored to their

seats in the House of Lords, and the Triennial Act of 1641 was repealed -

there was no mechanism for enforcing the King's obligation to call

Parliament at least once every three years. Under the 1660 Act of Indemnity

and Oblivion, only the lands of the Crown and the Church were automatically

resumed; the lands of Royalists and other dissenters which had been

confiscated and/or sold on were left for private negotiation or litigation.

The early years of Charles's reign saw an appalling plague which hit the

country in 1665 with 70,000 dying in London alone, and the Great Fire of

London in 1666 which destroyed St Paul's amongst other buildings. Another

misfortune included the second Dutch war of 1665 (born of English and Dutch

commercial and colonial rivalry). Although the Dutch settlement of New

Amsterdam was overrun and renamed New York before the war started, by 1666

France and Denmark had allied with the Dutch. The war was dogged by poor

administration culminating in a Dutch attack on the Thames in 1667; a peace

was negotiated later in the year.

In 1667, Charles dismissed his Lord Chancellor, Clarendon - an adviser

from Charles's days of exile (Clarendon's daughter Anne was the first wife

of Charles's brother James and was mother of Queens Mary and Anne). As a

scapegoat for the difficult religious settlement and the Dutch war,

Clarendon had failed to build a 'Court interest' in the Commons. He was

succeeded by a series of ministerial combinations, the first of which was

that of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale (whose

initials formed the nickname Cabal). Such combinations (except for Danby's

dominance of Parliament from 1673 to 1679) were largely kept in balance by

Charles for the rest of his reign.

Charles's foreign policy was a wavering balance of alliances with France

and the Dutch in turn. In 1670, Charles signed the secret treaty of Dover

under which Charles would declare himself a Catholic and England would side

with France against the Dutch - in return Charles would receive subsidies

from the King of France (thus enabling Charles some limited room for

manoeuvre with Parliament, but leaving the possibility of public disclosure

of the treaty by Louis). Practical considerations prevented such a public

conversion, but Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence, using his

prerogative powers to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and

Nonconformists. In the face of an Anglican Parliament's opposition, Charles

was eventually forced to withdraw the Declaration in 1673.

In 1677 Charles married his niece Mary to William of Orange partly to

restore the balance after his brother's second marriage to the Catholic

Mary of Modena and to re-establish his own Protestant credentials. This

assumed a greater importance as it became clear that Charles's marriage to

Catherine of Braganza would produce no legitimate heirs (although Charles

had a number of mistresses and illegitimate children), and his Roman

Catholic brother James's position as heir apparent raised the prospect of a

Catholic king.

Throughout Charles's reign, religious toleration dominated the political

scene. The 1662 Act of Uniformity had imposed the use of the Book of Common

Prayer, and insisted that clergy subscribe to Anglican doctrine (some 1,000

clergy lost their livings). Anti-Catholicism was widespread; the Test Act

of 1673 excluded Roman Catholics from both Houses of Parliament.

Parliament's reaction to the Popish Plot of 1678 (an allegation by Titus

Oates that Jesuit priests were conspiring to murder the King, and involving

the Queen and the Lord Treasurer, Danby) was to impeach Danby and present a

Bill to exclude James (Charles's younger brother and a Roman Catholic

convert) from the succession. In 1680/81 Charles dissolved three

Parliaments which had all tried to introduce Exclusion Bills on the basis

that 'we are not like to have a good end'.

Charles sponsored the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 (still in

existence today) to promote scientific research. Charles also encouraged a

rebuilding programme, particularly in the last years of his reign, which

included extensive rebuilding at Windsor Castle, a huge but uncompleted new

palace at Winchester and the Greenwich Observatory. Charles was a patron of

Christopher Wren in the design and rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral,

Chelsea Hospital (a refuge for old war veterans) and other London

buildings.

Charles died in 1685, becoming a Roman Catholic on his deathbed.

JAMES II (1685-88)

Born in 1633 and named after his grandfather James I, James II grew up in

exile after the Civil War (he served in the armies of Louis XIV) and, after

his brother's restoration, commanded the Royal Navy from 1660 to 1673.

James converted to Catholicism in 1669. Despite his conversion, James II

succeeded to the throne peacefully at the age of 51. His position was a

strong one - there were standing armies of nearly 20,000 men in his

kingdoms and he had a revenue of around £2 million. Within days of his

succession, James announced the summoning of Parliament in May but he

sounded a warning note: 'the best way to engage me to meet you often is

always to use me well'. A rebellion led by Charles's illegitimate son, the

Duke of Monmouth, was easily crushed after the battle of Sedgemoor in 1685,

and savage punishments were imposed by the infamous Lord Chief Justice,

Judge Jeffreys, at the 'Bloody Assizes'.

James's reaction to the Monmouth rebellion was to plan the increase of

the standing army and the appointment of loyal and experienced Roman

Catholic officers. This, together with James's attempts to give civic

equality to Roman Catholic and Protestant dissenters, led to conflict with

Parliament, as it was seen as James showing favouritism towards Roman

Catholics. Fear of Catholicism was widespread (in 1685, Louis XIV revoked

the Edict of Nantes which gave protection to French Protestants), and the

possibility of a standing army led by Roman Catholic officers produced

protest in Parliament. As a result, James prorogued Parliament in 1685 and

ruled without it.

James attempted to promote the Roman Catholic cause by dismissing judges

and Lord Lieutenants who refused to support the withdrawal of laws

penalising religious dissidents, appointing Catholics to important academic

posts, and to senior military and political positions. Within three years,

the majority of James's subjects had been alienated.

In 1687 James issued the Declaration of Indulgence aiming at religious

toleration; seven bishops who asked James to reconsider were charged with

seditious libel, but later acquitted to popular Anglican acclaim. When his

second (Roman Catholic) wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth on 10 June 1688 to

a son (James Stuart, later known as the 'Old Pretender' and father of

Charles Edward Stuart, 'Bonnie Prince Charlie'), it seemed that a Roman

Catholic dynasty would be established. William of Orange, Protestant

husband of James's elder daughter, Mary (by James's first and Protestant

wife, Anne Hyde), was therefore welcomed when he invaded on 5 November

1688. The Army and the Navy (disaffected despite James's investment in

them) deserted to William, and James fled to France.

James's attempt to regain the throne by taking a French army to Ireland

failed - he was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. James spent

the rest of his life in exile in France, dying there in 1701.

WILLIAM III (1689-1702) AND MARY II (1689-94)

In 1689 Parliament declared that James had abdicated by deserting his

kingdom. William (reigned 1689-1702) and Mary (reigned 1689-94) were

offered the throne as joint monarchs. They accepted a Declaration of Rights

(later a Bill), drawn up by a Convention of Parliament, which limited the

Sovereign's power, reaffirmed Parliament's claim to control taxation and

legislation, and provided guarantees against the abuses of power which

James II and the other Stuart Kings had committed. The exclusion of James

II and his heirs was extended to exclude all Catholics from the throne,

since 'it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the

safety and welfare of this protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist

prince'. The Sovereign was required in his coronation oath to swear to

maintain the Protestant religion.

The Bill was designed to ensure Parliament could function free from royal

interference. The Sovereign was forbidden from suspending or dispensing

with laws passed by Parliament, or imposing taxes without Parliamentary

consent. The Sovereign was not allowed to interfere with elections or

freedom of speech, and proceedings in Parliament were not to be questioned

in the courts or in any body outside Parliament itself. (This was the basis

of modern parliamentary privilege.) The Sovereign was required to summon

Parliament frequently (the Triennial Act of 1694 reinforced this by

requiring the regular summoning of Parliaments). Parliament tightened

control over the King's expenditure; the financial settlement reached with

William and Mary deliberately made them dependent upon Parliament, as one

Member of Parliament said, 'when princes have not needed money they have

not needed us'. Finally the King was forbidden to maintain a standing army

in time of peace without Parliament's consent.

The Bill of Rights added further defences of individual rights. The King

was forbidden to establish his own courts or to act as a judge himself, and

the courts were forbidden to impose excessive bail or fines, or cruel and

unusual punishments. However, the Sovereign could still summon and dissolve

Parliament, appoint and dismiss Ministers, veto legislation and declare

war.

The so-called 'Glorious Revolution' has been much debated over the degree

to which it was conservative or radical in character. The result was a

permanent shift in power; although the monarchy remained of central

importance, Parliament had become a permanent feature of political life.

The Toleration Act of 1689 gave all non-conformists except Roman

Catholics freedom of worship, thus rewarding Protestant dissenters for

their refusal to side with James II.

After 1688 there was a rapid development of party, as parliamentary

sessions lengthened and the Triennial Act ensured frequent general

elections. Although the Tories had fully supported the Revolution, it was

the Whigs (traditional critics of the monarchy) who supported William and

consolidated their position. Recognising the advisability of selecting a

Ministry from the political party with the majority in the House of

Commons, William appointed a Ministry in 1696 which was drawn from the

Whigs; known as the Junto, it was regarded with suspicion by Members of

Parliament as it met separately, but it may be regarded as the forerunner

of the modern Cabinet of Ministers.

In 1697, Parliament decided to give an annual grant of £700,000 to the

King for life, as a contribution to the expenses of civil government, which

included judges' and ambassadors' salaries, as well as the Royal

Household's expenses.

The Bill of Rights had established the succession with the heirs of Mary

II, Anne and William III in that order, but by 1700 Mary had died

childless, Anne's only surviving child (out of 17 children), the Duke of

Gloucester, had died at the age of 11 and William was dying. The succession

had to be decided.

The Act of Settlement of 1701 was designed to secure the Protestant

succession to the throne, and to strengthen the guarantees for ensuring

parliamentary system of government. According to the Act, succession to the

throne went to Princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover and James I's

granddaughter, and her Protestant heirs.

The Act also laid down the conditions under which alone the Crown could

be held. No Roman Catholic, nor anyone married to a Roman Catholic, could

hold the English Crown. The Sovereign now had to swear to maintain the

Church of England (and after 1707, the Church of Scotland). The Act of

Settlement not only addressed the dynastic and religious aspects of

succession, it also further restricted the powers and prerogatives of the

Crown.

Under the Act, parliamentary consent had to be given for the Sovereign to

engage in war or leave the country, and judges were to hold office on good

conduct and not at royal pleasure - thus establishing judicial

independence. The Act of Settlement reinforced the Bill of Rights, in that

it strengthened the principle that government was undertaken by the

Sovereign and his or her constitutional advisers (i.e. his or her

Ministers), not by the Sovereign and any personal advisers whom he or she

happened to choose.

One of William's main reasons for accepting the throne was to reinforce

the struggle against Louis XIV. William's foreign policy was dominated by

the priority to contain French expansionism. England and the Dutch joined

the coalition against France during the Nine Years War. Although Louis was

forced to recognise William as King under the Treaty of Ryswick (1697),

William's policy of intervention in Europe was costly in terms of finance

and his popularity. The Bank of England, established in 1694 to raise money

for the war by borrowing, did not loosen the King's financial reliance on

Parliament as the national debt depended on parliamentary guarantees.

William's Dutch advisers were resented, and in 1699 his Dutch Blue Guards

were forced to leave the country.

Never of robust health, William died as a result of complications from a

fall whilst riding at Hampton Court in 1702.

ANNE (1702-14)

Anne, born in 1665, was the second daughter of James II and Anne Hyde.

She played no part in her father's reign, but sided with her sister and

brother-in-law (Mary II and William III) during the Glorious Revolution.

She married George, Prince of Denmark, but the pair failed to produce a

surviving heir. She died at 49 years of age, after a lifelong battle with

the blood disease porphyria.

The untimely death of William III nullified, in effect, the Settlement

Act of 1701: Anne was James' daughter through his Protestant marriage, and

therefore, presented no conflict with the act. Anne refrained from

politically antagonizing Parliament, but was compelled to attend most

Cabinet meetings to keep her half-brother, James the Old Pretender, under

heel. Anne was the last sovereign to veto an act of Parliament, as well as

the final Stuart monarch. The most significant constitutional act in her

reign was the Act of Union in 1707, which created Great Britain by finally

fully uniting England and Scotland (Ireland joined the Union in 1801).

The Stuart trait of relying on favorites was as pronounced in Anne's

reign as it had been in James I's reign. Anne's closest confidant was Sarah

Churchill, who exerted great influence over the king. Sarah's husband was

the Duke of Marlborough, who masterly led the English to several victories

in the War of Spanish Succession. Anne and Sarah were virtually

inseparable: no king's mistress had ever wielded the power granted to the

duchess, but Sarah became too confident in her position. She developed an

overbearing demeanor towards Anne, and berated the Queen in public. In the

meantime, Tory leaders had planted one Abigail Hill in the royal household

to capture Anne's need for sympathy and affection. As Anne increasingly

turned to Abigail, the question of succession rose again, pitting the Queen

and the Marlborough against each other in a heated debate. The relationship

of Anne and the Churchill's fell asunder. Marlborough, despite his war

record, was dismissed from public service and Sarah was shunned in favor of

Abigail.

Many of the internal conflicts in English society were simply the birth

pains of the two-party system of government. The Whig and Tory Parties,

fully enfranchised by the last years of Anne's reign, fought for control of

Parliament and influence over the Queen. Anne was torn personally as well

as politically by the succession question: her Stuart upbringing compelled

her to choose as heir her half-brother, the Old Pretender and favorite of

the Tories, but she had already elected to side with Whigs when supporting

Mary and William over James II. In the end, Anne abided by the Act of

Settlement, and the Whigs paved the way for the succession of their

candidate, George of Hanover.

Anne's reign may be considered successful, but somewhat lackluster in

comparison to the rest of the Stuart line. 1066 and All That, describes her

with its usual tongue-in-cheek manner: "Finally the Orange... was succeeded

by the memorable dead queen, Anne. Queen Anne was considered rather a

remarkable woman and hence was usually referred to as Great Anna, or Annus

Mirabilis. The Queen had many favourites (all women), the most memorable of

whom were Sarah Jenkins and Mrs Smashems, who were the first wig and the

first Tory... the Whigs being the first to realize that the Queen had been

dead all the time chose George I as King."

THE HANOVERIANS

The Hanoverians came to power in difficult circumstances that looked set

to undermine the stability of British society. The first of their Kings,

George I, was only 52nd in line to the throne, but the nearest Protestant

according the Act of Settlement. Two descendants of James II, the deposed

Stuart King, threatened to take the throne and were supported by a number

of 'Jacobites' throughout the realm.

The Hanoverian period for all that, was remarkably stable, not least

because of the longevity of its Kings. From 1714 through to 1837, there

were only five, one of whom, George III, remains the longest reigning King

in British History. The period was also one of political stability, and the

development of constitutional monarchy. For vast tracts of the eighteenth

century politics were dominated by the great Whig families, while the early

nineteenth century saw Tory domination. Britain's first 'Prime' Minister,

Robert Walpole, dates from this period, while income tax was introduced.

Towards the end of the reign, the Great Reform Act was passed, which

amongst other things widened the electorate.

It was in this period that Britain came to acquire much of her overseas

Empire, despite the loss of the American colonies, largely through foreign

conquest in the various wars of the century. At the end of the Hanoverian

period the British empire covered a third of the globe while the theme of

longevity was set to continue, as the longest reigning monarch in British

history, Queen Victoria, prepared to take the throne.

THE HANOVERIANS

1714 - 1837

GEORGE I =

Sophia Dorothea, dau. of Duke of Brunswick and Celle

(1714–1727)

GEORGE

II = Caroline, dau. of Margrave of

(1727–1760) Brandenburg-Anspach

Augusta of =

Frederick Lewis,

Saxe-Gotha-Altenberg Prince of

Wales

GEORGE III = Sophia Charlotte of

(1760–1820) Mecklenburg-Strelitz

GEORGE IV WILLIAM IV

Edward, = Victoria

(1820–1830) (1830–1837)

Duke of Kent of Saxe-

Coburg

VICTORIA

(1837–1901)

GEORGE I (1714-27)

George I was born March 28, 1660, son of Ernest, Elector of Hanover and

Sophia, granddaughter of James I. He was raised in the royal court of

Hanover, a German province, and married Sophia, Princess of Zelle, in 1682.

The marriage produced one son (the future George II) and one daughter

(Sophia Dorothea, who married her cousin, Frederick William I, King of

Prussia). After ruling England for thirteen years, George I died of a

stroke on a journey to his beloved Hanover on October 11, 1727.

George, Elector of Hanover since 1698, ascended the throne upon the death

of Queen Anne, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement. His mother

had recently died and he meticulously settled his affairs in Hanover before

coming to England. He realized his position and considered the better of

two evils to be the Whigs (the other alternative was the Catholic son of

James II by Mary of Modena, James Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender). George

knew that any decision was bound to offend at least half of the British

population. His character and mannerisms were strictly German; he never

troubled himself to learn the English language, and spent at least half of

his time in Hanover.

The pale little 54 year-old man arrived in Greenwich on September 29,

1714, with a full retinue of German friends, advisors and servants (two of

which, Mohamet and Mustapha, were Negroes captured during a Turkish

campaign). All were determined to profit from the venture, with George

leading the way. He also arrived with two mistresses and no wife - Sophia

had been imprisoned for adultery. The English population was unkind to the

two mistresses, labeling the tall, thin Ehrengard Melusina von Schulenberg

as the "maypole", and the short, fat Charlotte Sophia Kielmansegge as the

"elephant". Thackeray remarked, "Take what you can get was the old

monarch's maxim... The German women plundered, the German secretaries

plundered, the German cooks and attendants plundered, even Mustapha and

Mohamet... had a share in the booty."

The Jacobites, legitimist Tories, attempted to depose George and replace

him with the Old Pretender in 1715. The rebellion was a dismal failure. The

Old Pretender failed to arrive in Britain until it was over and French

backing evaporated with the death of Louis XIV. After the rebellion,

England settled into a much needed time of peace, with internal politics

and foreign affairs coming to the fore.

George's ignorance of the English language and customs actually became

the cornerstone of his style of rule: leave England to it's own devices and

live in Hanover as much as possible. Cabinet positions became of the utmost

importance; the king's ministers represented the executive branch of

government, while Parliament represented the legislative. George's frequent

absences required the creation of the post of Prime Minister, the majority

leader in the House of Commons who acted in the king's stead. The first was

Robert Walpole, whose political mettle was tried in 1720 with the South Sea

Company debacle. The South Sea Company was a highly speculative venture

(one of many that was currently plaguing British economics at that time),

whose investors cajoled government participation. Walpole resisted from the

beginning, and after the venture collapsed and thousands were financially

ruined, he worked feverishly to restore public credit and confidence in

George's government. His success put him in the position of dominating

British politics for the next 20 years, and the reliance on an executive

Cabinet marked an important step in the formation of a modern

constitutional monarchy in England.

George avoided entering European conflicts by establishing a complex web

of continental alliances. He and his Whig ministers were quite skillful;

the realm managed to stay out of war until George II declared war on Spain

in 1739. George I and his son, George II, literally hated each other, a

fact that the Tory party used to gain political strength. George I, on his

many trips to Hanover, never placed the leadership of government in his

son's hands, preferring to rely on his ministers when he was abroad. This

disdain between father and son was a blight which became a tradition in the

House of Hanover.

Thackeray, in The Four Georges, allows both a glimpse of George I's

character, and the circumstances under which he ruled England: "Though a

despot in Hanover, he was a moderate ruler in England. His aim was to leave

it to itself as much as possible, and to live out of it as much as he

could. His heart was in Hanover. He was more than fifty-four years of age

when he came amongst us: we took him because we wanted him, because he

served our turn; we laughed at his uncouth German ways, and sneered at him.

He took our loyalty for what it was worth; laid hands on what money he

could; kept us assuredly from Popery and wooden shoes. I, for one, would

have been on his side in those days. Cynical, and selfish, as he was, he

was better than a king out of St. Germains [the Old Pretender] with a

French King's orders in his pocket, and a swarm of Jesuits in his train."

GEORGE II (1727-60)

George II was born November 10, 1683, the only son of George I and

Sophia. His youth was spent in the Hanoverian court in Germany, and he

married Caroline of Anspach in 1705. He was truly devoted to Caroline; she

bore him three sons and five daughters, and actively participated in

government affairs, before she died in 1737. Like his father, George was

very much a German prince, but at the age of 30 when George I ascended the

throne, he was young enough to absorb the English culture that escaped his

father. George II died of a stroke on October 25, 1760.

George possessed three passions: the army, music and his wife. He was

exceptionally brave and has the distinction of being the last British

sovereign to command troops in the field (at Dettingen against the French

in 1743). He inherited his father's love of opera, particularly the work of

George Frederick Handel, who had been George I's court musician in Hanover.

Caroline proved to be his greatest asset. She revived traditional court

life (which had all but vanished under George I, was fiercely intelligent

and an ardent supporter of Robert Walpole. Walpole continued in the role of

Prime Minister at Caroline's behest, as George was loathe keeping his

father's head Cabinet member. The hatred George felt towards his father was

reciprocated by his son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died in 1751.

Walpole retired in 1742, after establishing the foundation of the modern

constitutional monarchy: a Cabinet responsible to a Parliament, which was,

in turn, responsible to an electorate. At that time, the system was far

from truly democratic; the electorate was essentially the voice of wealthy

landowners and mercantilists. The Whig party was firmly in control,

although legitimist Tories attempted one last Jacobite rebellion in 1745,

by again trying to restore a Stuart to the throne. Prince Charles Edward

Stuart, known as the Young Pretender or Bonnie Prince Charlie, landed in

Scotland and marched as far south as Derby, causing yet another wave of

Anti-Catholicism to wash over England. The Scots retreated, and in 1746,

were butchered by the Royal Army at Culloden Moor. Bonnie Prince Charlie

escaped to France and died in Rome. The Tories became suspect due to their

associations with Jacobitism, ensuring oligarchic Whig rule for the

following fifty years.

Walpole managed to keep George out of continental conflicts for the first

twelve years of the reign, but George declared war on Spain in 1739,

against Walpole's wishes. The Spanish war extended into the 1740's as a

component of the War of Austrian Succession, in which England fought

against French dominance in Europe. George shrank away from the situation

quickly: he negotiated a hasty peace with France, to protect Hanover. The

1750's found England again at war with France, this time over imperial

claims. Fighting was intense in Europe, but North America and India were

also theatres of the war. Government faltering in response to the French

crisis brought William Pitt the Elder, later Earl of Chatham, to the

forefront of British politics.

Thackeray describes George II and Walpole as such, in The Four Georges

"... how he was a choleric little sovereign; how he shook his fist in the

face of his father's courtiers; how he kicked his coat and wig about in his

rages; and called everybody thief, liar, rascal with whom he differed: you

will read in all the history books; and how he speedily and shrewdly

reconciled himself with the bold minister, whom he had hated during his

father's life, and by whom he was served during fifteen years of his own

with admirable prudence, fidelity, and success. But for Robert Walpole, we

should have had the Pretender back again."

GEORGE III (r. 1760-1820)

George III was born on 4 June 1738 in London, the eldest son of

Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. He became

heir to the throne on the death of his father in 1751, succeeding his

grandfather, George II, in 1760. He was the third Hanoverian monarch and

the first one to be born in England and to use English as his first

language.

George III is widely remembered for two things: losing the American

colonies and going mad. This is far from the whole truth. George's direct

responsibility for the loss of the colonies is not great. He opposed their

bid for independence to the end, but he did not develop the policies (such

as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend duties of 1767 on tea, paper and

other products) which led to war in 1775-76 and which had the support of

Parliament. These policies were largely due to the financial burdens of

garrisoning and administering the vast expansion of territory brought under

the British Crown in America, the costs of a series of wars with France and

Spain in North America, and the loans given to the East India Company (then

responsible for administering India). By the 1770s, and at a time when

there was no income tax, the national debt required an annual revenue of £4

million to service it.

The declaration of American independence on 4 July 1776, the end of the

war with the surrender by British forces in 1782, and the defeat which the

loss of the American colonies represented, could have threatened the

Hanoverian throne. However, George's strong defence of what he saw as the

national interest and the prospect of long war with revolutionary France

made him, if anything, more popular than before.

The American war, its political aftermath and family anxieties placed

great strain on George in the 1780s. After serious bouts of illness in 1788-

89 and again in 1801, George became permanently deranged in 1810. He was

mentally unfit to rule in the last decade of his reign; his eldest son -

the later George IV - acted as Prince Regent from 1811. Some medical

historians have said that George III's mental instability was caused by a

hereditary physical disorder called porphyria.

George's accession in 1760 marked a significant change in royal finances.

Since 1697, the monarch had received an annual grant of £700,000 from

Parliament as a contribution to the Civil List, i.e. civil government costs

(such as judges' and ambassadors' salaries) and the expenses of the Royal

Household. In 1760, it was decided that the whole cost of the Civil List

should be provided by Parliament in return for the surrender of the

hereditary revenues by the King for the duration of his reign. (This

arrangement still applies today, although civil government costs are now

paid by Parliament, rather than financed directly by the monarch from the

Civil List.)

The first 25 years of George's reign were politically controversial for

reasons other than the conflict with America. The King was accused by some

critics, particularly Whigs (a leading political grouping), of attempting

to reassert royal authority in an unconstitutional manner. In fact, George

took a conventional view of the constitution and the powers left to the

Crown after the conflicts between Crown and Parliament in the 17th century.

Although he was careful not to exceed his powers, George's limited

ability and lack of subtlety in dealing with the shifting alliances within

the Tory and Whig political groupings in Parliament meant that he found it

difficult to bring together ministries which could enjoy the support of the

House of Commons. His problem was solved first by the long-lasting ministry

of Lord North (1770-82) and then, from 1783, by Pitt the Younger, whose

ministry lasted until 1801.

George III was the most attractive of the Hanoverian monarchs. He was a

good family man (there were 15 children) and devoted to his wife, Charlotte

of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, for whom he bought the Queen's House (later

enlarged to become Buckingham Palace). However, his sons disappointed him

and, after his brothers made unsuitable secret marriages, the Royal

Marriages Act of 1772 was passed at George's insistence. (Under this Act,

the Sovereign must give consent to the marriage of any lineal descendant of

George II, with certain exceptions.)

Being extremely conscientious, George read all government papers and

sometimes annoyed his ministers by taking such a prominent interest in

government and policy. His political influence could be decisive. In 1801,

he forced Pitt the Younger to resign when the two men disagreed about

whether Roman Catholics should have full civil rights. George III, because

of his coronation oath to maintain the rights and privileges of the Church

of England, was against the proposed measure.

One of the most cultured of monarchs, George started a new royal

collection of books (65,000 of his books were later given to the British

Museum, as the nucleus of a national library) and opened his library to

scholars. In 1768, George founded and paid the initial costs of the Royal

Academy of Arts (now famous for its exhibitions). He was the first king to

study science as part of his education (he had his own astronomical

observatory), and examples of his collection of scientific instruments can

now be seen in the Science Museum.

George III also took a keen interest in agriculture, particularly on the

crown estates at Richmond and Windsor, being known as 'Farmer George'. In

his last years, physical as well as mental powers deserted him and he

became blind. He died at Windsor Castle on 29 January 1820, after a reign

of almost 60 years - the second longest in British history.

GEORGE IV (1820-30)

George IV was 48 when he became Regent in 1811. He had secretly and

illegally married a Roman Catholic, Mrs Fitzherbert. In 1795 he officially

married Princess Caroline of Brunswick, but the marriage was a failure and

he tried unsuccessfully to divorce her after his accession in 1820

(Caroline died in 1821). Their only child Princess Charlotte died giving

birth to a stillborn child.

An outstanding, if extravagant, collector and builder, George IV acquired

many important works of art (now in the Royal Collection), built the Royal

Pavilion at Brighton, and transformed Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace.

George's fondness for pageantry helped to develop the ceremonial side of

monarchy. After his father's long illness, George resumed royal visits; he

visited Hanover in 1821 (it had not been visited by its ruler since the

1750s), and Ireland and Scotland over the next couple of years.

Beset by debts, George was in a weak position in relation to his Cabinet

of ministers. His concern for royal prerogative was sporadic; when the

Prime Minister Lord Liverpool fell ill in 1827, George at one stage

suggested that ministers should choose Liverpool's successor. In 1829,

George IV was forced by his ministers, much against his will and his

interpretation of his coronation oath, to agree to Catholic Emancipation.

By reducing religious discrimination, this emancipation enabled the

monarchy to play a more national role.

George's profligacy and marriage difficulties meant that he never

regained much popularity, and he spent his final years in seclusion at

Windsor, dying at the age of 67.

WILLIAM IV (1830-37)

At the age of 13, William became a midshipman and began a career in the

Royal Navy. In 1789, he was made duke of Clarence. He retired from the Navy

in 1790. Between 1791 and 1811 he lived with his mistress, the actress Mrs

Jordan, and the growing family of their children known as the

Fitzclarences. William married Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen in 1818,

but their children died in infancy. The third son of George III, William

became heir apparent at the age of 62 when his older brother died.

William's reign (reigned 1830-37) was dominated by the Reform crisis,

beginning almost immediately when Wellington's Tory government (which

William supported) lost the general election in August 1830. Pledged to

parliamentary reform, Grey's Whig government won a further election which

William had to call in 1831 and then pushed through a reform bill against

the opposition of the Tories and the House of Lords, using the threat of

the creation of 50 or more peers to do so. The failure of the Tories to

form an alternative government in 1832 meant that William had to sign the

Great Reform Bill. Control of peerages had been used as a party weapon, and

the royal prerogative had been damaged.

The Reform Bill abolished some of the worst abuses of the electoral

system (for example, representation for so called 'rotten boroughs', which

had long ceased to be of any importance, was stopped, and new industrial

towns obtained representation). The Reform Act also introduced standardised

rules for the franchise (different boroughs had previously had varying

franchise rules) and, by extending the franchise to the middle classes,

greatly increased the role of public opinion in the political process.

William understood the theory of the more limited monarchy, once saying

'I have my view of things, and I tell them to my ministers. If they do not

adopt them, I cannot help it. I have done my duty.' William died a month

after Victoria had come of age, thus avoiding another regency.

VICTORIA (1837-1901)

Victoria was born at Kensington Palace, London, on 24 May 1819. She was

the only daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. Her

father died shortly after her birth and she became heir to the throne

because the three uncles who were ahead of her in succession - George IV,

Frederick Duke of York, and William IV - had no legitimate children who

survived. Warmhearted and lively, Victoria had a gift for drawing and

painting; educated by a governess at home, she was a natural diarist and

kept a regular journal throughout her life. On William IV's death in 1837,

she became Queen at the age of 18.

Queen Victoria is associated with Britain's great age of industrial

expansion, economic progress and - especially - empire. At her death, it

was said, Britain had a worldwide empire on which the sun never set.

In the early part of her reign, she was influenced by two men: her first

Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, and her husband, Prince Albert, whom she

married in 1840. Both men taught her much about how to be a ruler in a

'constitutional monarchy' where the monarch had very few powers but could

use much influence. Albert took an active interest in the arts, science,

trade and industry; the project for which he is best remembered was the

Great Exhibition of 1851, the profits from which helped to establish the

South Kensington museums complex in London.

Her marriage to Prince Albert brought nine children between 1840 and

1857. Most of her children married into other royal families of Europe:

Edward VII (born 1841, married Alexandra, daughter of Christian IX of

Denmark); Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born

1844, married Marie of Russia); Arthur, Duke of Connaught (born 1850,

married Louise Margaret of Prussia); Leopold, Duke of Albany (born 1853,

married Helen of Waldeck-Pyrmont); Victoria, Princess Royal (born 1840,

married Friedrich III, German Emperor); Alice (born 1843, married Ludwig

IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine); Helena (born 1846, married Christian

of Schleswig-Holstein); Louise (born 1848, married John Campbell, 9th Duke

of Argyll); Beatrice (born 1857, married Henry of Battenberg). Victoria

bought Osborne House (later presented to the nation by Edward VII) on the

Isle of Wight as a family home in 1845, and Albert bought Balmoral in 1852.

Victoria was deeply attached to her husband and she sank into depression

after he died, aged 42, in 1861. She had lost a devoted husband and her

principal trusted adviser in affairs of state. For the rest of her reign

she wore black. Until the late 1860s she rarely appeared in public;

although she never neglected her official Correspondence, and continued to

give audiences to her ministers and official visitors, she was reluctant to

resume a full public life. She was persuaded to open Parliament in person

in 1866 and 1867, but she was widely criticised for living in seclusion and

quite a strong republican movement developed. (Seven attempts were made on

Victoria's life, between 1840 and 1882 - her courageous attitude towards

these attacks greatly strengthened her popularity.) With time, the private

urgings of her family and the flattering attention of Benjamin Disraeli,

Prime Minister in 1868 and from 1874 to 1880, the Queen gradually resumed

her public duties.

In foreign policy, the Queen's influence during the middle years of her

reign was generally used to support peace and reconciliation. In 1864,

Victoria pressed her ministers not to intervene in the Prussia-Austria-

Denmark war, and her letter to the German Emperor (whose son had married

her daughter) in 1875 helped to avert a second Franco-German war. On the

Eastern Question in the 1870s - the issue of Britain's policy towards the

declining Turkish Empire in Europe - Victoria (unlike Gladstone) believed

that Britain, while pressing for necessary reforms, ought to uphold Turkish

hegemony as a bulwark of stability against Russia, and maintain bi-

partisanship at a time when Britain could be involved in war.

Victoria's popularity grew with the increasing imperial sentiment from

the 1870s onwards. After the Indian Mutiny of 1857, the government of India

was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown with the position

of Governor General upgraded to Viceroy, and in 1877 Victoria became

Empress of India under the Royal Titles Act passed by Disraeli's

government.

During Victoria's long reign, direct political power moved away from the

sovereign. A series of Acts broadened the social and economic base of the

electorate. These acts included the Second Reform Act of 1867; the

introduction of the secret ballot in 1872, which made it impossible to

pressurise voters by bribery or intimidation; and the Representation of the

Peoples Act of 1884 - all householders and lodgers in accommodation worth

at least £10 a year, and occupiers of land worth £10 a year, were entitled

to vote.

Despite this decline in the Sovereign's power, Victoria showed that a

monarch who had a high level of prestige and who was prepared to master the

details of political life could exert an important influence. This was

demonstrated by her mediation between the Commons and the Lords, during the

acrimonious passing of the Irish Church Disestablishment Act of 1869 and

the 1884 Reform Act. It was during Victoria's reign that the modern idea of

the constitutional monarch, whose role was to remain above political

parties, began to evolve. But Victoria herself was not always non-partisan

and she took the opportunity to give her opinions - sometimes very

forcefully - in private.

After the Second Reform Act of 1867, and the growth of the two-party

(Liberal and Conservative) system, the Queen's room for manoeuvre

decreased. Her freedom to choose which individual should occupy the

premiership was increasingly restricted. In 1880, she tried,

unsuccessfully, to stop William Gladstone - whom she disliked as much as

she admired Disraeli and whose policies she distrusted - from becoming

Prime Minister. She much preferred the Marquess of Hartington, another

statesman from the Liberal party which had just won the general election.

She did not get her way. She was a very strong supporter of Empire, which

brought her closer both to Disraeli and to the Marquess of Salisbury, her

last Prime Minister. Although conservative in some respects - like many at

the time she opposed giving women the vote - on social issues, she tended

to favour measures to improve the lot of the poor, such as the Royal

Commission on housing. She also supported many charities involved in

education, hospitals and other areas.

Victoria and her family travelled and were seen on an unprecedented

scale, thanks to transport improvements and other technical changes such as

the spread of newspapers and the invention of photography. Victoria was the

first reigning monarch to use trains - she made her first train journey in

1842.

In her later years, she almost became the symbol of the British Empire.

Both the Golden (1887) and the Diamond (1897) Jubilees, held to celebrate

the 50th and 60th anniversaries of the queen's accession, were marked with

great displays and public ceremonies. On both occasions, Colonial

Conferences attended by the Prime Ministers of the self-governing colonies

were held.

Despite her advanced age, Victoria continued her duties to the end -

including an official visit to Dublin in 1900. The Boer War in South Africa

overshadowed the end of her reign. As in the Crimean War nearly half a

century earlier, Victoria reviewed her troops and visited hospitals; she

remained undaunted by British reverses during the campaign: 'We are not

interested in the possibilities of defeat; they do not exist.'

Victoria died at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, on 22 January 1901

after a reign which lasted almost 64 years, the longest in British history.

She was buried at Windsor beside Prince Albert, in the Frogmore Royal

Mausoleum, which she had built for their final resting place. Above the

Mausoleum door are inscribed Victoria's words: 'farewell best beloved, here

at last I shall rest with thee, with thee in Christ I shall rise again'.

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA

The name Saxe-Coburg-Gotha came to the British Royal Family in 1840 with

the marriage of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert, son of Ernst, Duke of

Saxe-Coburg & Gotha. Queen Victoria herself remained a member of the House

of Hanover.

The only British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was King

Edward VII, who reigned for nine years at the beginning of the modern age

in the early years of the 20th century. King George V replaced the German-

sounding title with that of Windsor during the First World War. The name

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha survived in other European monarchies, including the

current Belgian Royal Family and the former monarchies of Portugal and

Bulgaria.

SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA

1837 - 1917

THE WINDSORS

1917 – PRESENT DAY

VICTORIA = m. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg &

Gotha

(1837-1910) (Prince Consort)

EDWARD VII = m. Princess Alexandra, dau.

of CHRISTIAN IX, King of

(1910 – 1936) Denmark

DUKE OF WINDSOR

GEORGE VI = m. Lady Elizabeth

EDWARD VIII

1936-1952 Bowes-Lyon, dau. of Earl of

(abdicated 1936)

Strathmore and

Kinghorne

(Queen

Elizabeth

The

Queen Mother)

QUEEN ELIZABETH II

(1952 – present day)

EDWARD VII (1901-10)

Edward VII, born November 9, 1841, was the eldest son of Queen Victoria.

He took the family name of his father, Prince Consort Albert, hence the

change in lineage, although he was still Hanoverian on his mother's side.

He married Princess Alexandra of Denmark in 1863, who bore him three sons

and three daughters. Edward died on May 6, 1910, after a series of heart

attacks.

Victoria, true to the Hanoverian name, saw the worst in Edward. She and

Albert imposed a strict regime upon Edward, who proved resistant and

resentful throughout his youth. His marriage at age twenty-two to Alexandra

afforded him some relief from his mother's domination, but even after

Albert's death in 1863, Victoria consistently denied her son any official

governmental role. Edward rebelled by completely indulging himself in

women, food, drink, gambling, sport and travel. Alexandra turned a blind

eye to his extramarital activities, which continued well into his sixties

and found him implicated in several divorce cases.

Edward succeeded the throne upon Victoria's death; despite his risqué

reputation, Edward threw himself into his role of king with vitality. His

extensive European travels gave him a solid foundation as an ambassador in

foreign relations. Quite a few of the royal houses of Europe were his

relatives, allowing him to actively assist in foreign policy negotiations.

He also maintained an active social life, and his penchant for flamboyant

accouterments set trends among the fashionable. Victoria's fears proved

wrong: Edward's forays into foreign policy had direct bearing on the

alliances between Great Britain and both France and Russia, and aside from

his sexual indiscretions, his manner and style endeared him to the English

populace.

Social legislation was the focus of Parliament during Edward's reign. The

1902 Education Act provided subsidized secondary education, and the Liberal

government passed a series of acts benefiting children after 1906; old age

pensions were established in 1908. The 1909 Labour Exchanges Act laid the

groundwork for national health insurance, which led to a constitutional

crisis over the means of budgeting such social legislation. The budget set

forth by David Lloyd-George proposed major tax increases on wealthy

landowners and was defeated in Parliament. Prime Minister Asquith appealed

to Edward to create several new peerages to swing the vote, but Edward

steadfastly refused. Edward died amidst the budgetary crisis at age sixty-

eight, which was resolved the following year by the Liberal government's

passage of the act.

Despite Edward's colorful personal life and Victoria's perceptions of him

as profligate, Edward ruled peacefully (aside from the Boer War of 1899-

1902) and successfully during his short reign, which is remarkable

considering the shifts in European power that occurred in the first decade

of the twentieth century.

THE HOUSE OF WINDSOR

The House of Windsor came into being in 1917, when the name was adopted

as the British Royal Family's official name by a proclamation of King

George V, replacing the historic name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. It remains the

family name of the current Royal Family.

During the twentieth century, kings and queens of the United Kingdom have

fulfilled the varied duties of constitutional monarchy. One of their most

important roles was national figureheads lifting public morale during the

devastating world wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45.

The period saw the modernization of the monarchy in tandem with the many

social changes which have taken place over the past 80 years. One such

modernization has been the use of mass communication technologies to make

the Royal Family accessible to a broader public the world over. George V

adopted the new relatively new medium of radio to broadcast across the

Empire at Christmas; the Coronation ceremony was broadcast on television

for the first time in 1953, at The Queen's insistence; and the World Wide

Web has been used for the past five years to provide a global audience with

information about the Royal Family. During this period British monarchs

have also played a vital part in promoting international relations,

retaining ties with former colonies in their role as Head of the

Commonwealth.

GEORGE V (1910-36)

George V was born June 3, 1865, the second son of Edward VII and

Alexandra. His early education was somewhat insignificant as compared to

that of the heir apparent, his older brother Albert. George chose the

career of professional naval officer and served competently until Albert

died in 1892, upon which George assumed the role of the heir apparent. He

married Mary of Teck (affectionately called May) in 1893, who bore him four

sons and one daughter. He died the year after his silver jubilee after a

series of debilitating attacks of bronchitis, on January 20, 1936.

George ascended the throne in the midst of a constitutional crisis: the

budget controversy of 1910. Tories in the House of Lords were at odds with

Liberals in the Commons pushing for social reforms. When George agreed to

create enough Liberal peerages to pass the measure the Lords capitulated

and gave up the power of absolute veto, resolving the problem officially

with passage of the Parliament Bill in 1911. The first World War broke out

in 1914, during which George and May made several visits to the front; on

one such visit, George's horse rolled on top of him, breaking his pelvis -

George remained in pain for the rest of his life from the injury. The

worldwide depression of 1929-1931 deeply affected England, prompting the

king to persuade the heads of the three political parties (Labour,

Conservative and Liberal) to unite into a coalition government. By the end

of the 1920's, George and the Windsors were but one of few royal families

who retained their status in Europe.

The relationship between England and the rest of the Empire underwent

several changes. An independent Irish Parliament was established in 1918

after the Sinn Fein uprising in 1916, and the Government of Ireland Act

(1920) divided Ireland along religious lines. Canada, Australia, New

Zealand and South Africa demanded the right of self-governance after the

war, resulting in the creation of the British Commonwealth of Nations by

the Statute of Westminster in 1931. India was accorded some degree of self-

determination with the Government of India Act in 1935.

The nature of the monarchy evolved through the influence of George. In

contrast to his grandmother and father - Victoria's ambition to exert

political influence in the tradition of Elizabeth I and Edward VII's

aspirations to manipulate the destiny of nations - George's royal

perspective was considerably more humble. He strove to embody those

qualities, which the nation saw as their greatest strengths: diligence,

dignity and duty. The monarchy transformed from an institution of

constitutional legality to the bulwark of traditional values and customs

(particularly those concerning the family). Robert Lacey describes George

as such: ". . . as his official biographer felt compelled to admit, King

George V was distinguished 'by no exercise of social gifts, by no personal

magnetism, by no intellectual powers. He was neither a wit nor a brilliant

raconteur, neither well-read nor well-educated, and he made no great

contribution to enlightened social converse. He lacked intellectual

curiosity and only late in life acquired some measure of artistic taste.'

He was, in other words, exactly like most of his subjects. He discovered a

new job for modern kings and queens to do - representation."

EDWARD VIII ( JANUARY-DECEMBER 1936)

As Prince of Wales, Edward VIII (reigned January-December 1936) had

successfully carried out a number of regional visits (including areas hit

by economic depression) and other official engagements. These visits and

his official tours overseas, together with his good war record and genuine

care for the underprivileged, had made him popular.

The first monarch to be a qualified pilot, Edward created The King's Flight

(now known as 32 (The Royal) Squadron) in 1936 to provide air transport for

the Royal family's official duties.

In 1930, the Prince, who had already had a number of affairs, had met and

fallen in love with a married American woman, Mrs Wallis Simpson. Concern

about Edward's private life grew in the Cabinet, opposition parties and the

Dominions, when Mrs Simpson obtained a divorce in 1936 and it was clear

that Edward was determined to marry her.

Eventually Edward realised he had to choose between the Crown and Mrs

Simpson who, as a twice-divorced woman, would not have been acceptable as

Queen. On 10 December 1936, Edward VIII executed an Instrument of

Abdication which was given legal effect the following day, when Edward gave

Royal Assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act, by which

Edward VIII and any children he might have were excluded from succession to

the throne. In 1937, Edward was created Duke of Windsor and married Wallis

Simpson.

During the Second World War, the Duke of Windsor escaped from Paris,

where he was living at the time of the fall of France, to Lisbon in 1940.

The Duke of Windsor was then appointed Governor of the Bahamas, a position

he held until 1945. He lived abroad until the end of his life, dying in

1972 in Paris (he is buried at Windsor). Edward was never crowned; his

reign lasted 325 days. His brother Albert became King, using his last name

George.

GEORGE VI (1936-52)

George VI, born December 14, 1895, was the second son of George V and

Mary of Teck. He was an unassuming, shy boy who greatly admired his brother

Edward, Prince of Wales. From childhood to the age of thirty, George

suffered with a bad stammer in his speech, which exacerbated his shyness;

Lionel Logue, an Australian speech therapist, was instrumental in helping

George overcome the speech defect. George married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon

in 1923, who bore him two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret. He died from

cancer on February 6, 1952.

Due to the controversy surrounding the abdication of Edward VIII, popular

opinion of the throne was at its lowest point since the latter half of

Victoria's reign. The abdication, however, was soon overshadowed by

continental developments, as Europe inched closer to yet another World War.

After several years of pursuing "appeasement" policies with Germany, Great

Britain (and France) declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. George,

following in his father's footsteps, visited troops, munitions factories,

supply docks and bomb-damaged areas to support the war effort. As the

Nazi's bombed London, the royal family remained at Buckingham Palace;

George went so far as to practice firing his revolver, vowing that he would

defend Buckingham to the death. Fortunately, such defense was never

necessary. The actions of the King and Queen during the war years greatly

added to the prestige of the monarchy.

George predicted the hardships following the end of the war as early as

1941. From 1945-50, Great Britain underwent marked transitions. The Bank of

England, as well as most facets of industry, transportation, energy

production and health care, were brought to some degree of public

ownership. The birth pangs of the Welfare State and the change from Empire

to multiracial Commonwealth troubled the high-strung king. The political

turmoil and economic hardships of the post-war years left the king

physically and emotionally drained by the time of his death.

In the context of royal history, George VI was one of only five monarchs

who succeeded the throne in the lifetime of his predecessor; Henry IV,

Edward IV, Richard III, and William III were the other four. George, upon

his ascension, wrote to Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin concerning the state

of the monarchy: "I am new to the job but I hope that time will be allowed

to me to make amends for what has happened." His brother Edward continued

to advise George on matters of the day, but such advice was a hindrance, as

it was contradictory to policies pursued by George's ministers. The "slim,

quiet man with tired eyes" (as described by Logue) had a troubled reign,

but he did much to leave the monarchy in better condition than he found it.

ELIZABETH II (1952-PRESENT)

Elizabeth II, born April 21, 1926, is the eldest daughter of George VI

and Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon. She married Philip Mountbatten, a distant cousin,

in 1947; the pair have four children: Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne,

Andrew and Edward. She has reigned for forty-six years, and appears capable

of remaining on the throne for quite some time.

Monarchy, as an institution in Europe, all but disappeared during the two

World Wars: a scant ten monarchs remain today, seven of which have familial

ties to England. Elizabeth is, by far, the best known of these, and is the

most widely traveled Head of State in the world. Her ascension was

accompanied by constitutional innovation; each independent, self-governing

country proclaimed Elizabeth, Queen of their individual state. She approves

of the transformation from Empire to Commonwealth, describing the change as

a "beneficial and civilized metamorphosis." The indivisibility of the crown

was formally abandoned by statute in 1953, and "Head of the Commonwealth"

was added to the long list of royal titles which she possesses.

Elizabeth's travels have won the adulation of her subjects; she is

greeted with honest enthusiasm and warm regard with each visit abroad. She

has been the master link in a chain of unity forged among the various

countries within the Commonwealth. Hence, the monarchy, as well as the

Empire, has evolved - what once was the image of absolute power is now a

symbol of fraternity.

Elizabeth has managed to maintain a division between her public and

private life. She is the first monarch to send her children to boarding

schools in order to remove them from the ever-probing media. She has a

strong sense of duty and diligence and dispatches her queenly business with

great candor, efficiency and dignity. Her knowledge of current situations

and trends is uncannily up to date, often to the embarrassment of her Prime

Ministers. Harold Wilson, upon his retirement, remarked, "I shall certainly

advise my successor to do his homework before his audience." Churchill, who

had served four monarchs, was impressed and delighted by her knowledge and

wit. She possesses a sense of humor rarely exhibited in public where a

dignified presence is her goal.

Elizabeth, like her father before her, raised the character of the

monarchy through her actions. Unfortunately, the actions of her children

have tarnished the royal name. The much publicized divorces of Charles from

Diana and Andrew from Sarah Ferguson have been followed by further

indiscretions by the princes, causing a heavily-taxed populace to rethink

the necessity of a monarchy. Perhaps Elizabeth will not reign as long as

Victoria, but her exceptionally long reign has provided a bright spot in

the life of her country.

THE MONARCHY TODAY

THE QUEEN'S ROLE

The Queen is the United Kingdom's Head of State. As well as carrying out

significant constitutional functions, The Queen also acts as a focus for

national unity, presiding at ceremonial occasions, visiting local

communities and representing Britain around the world. The Queen is also

Head of the Commonwealth. During her reign she has visited all the

Commonwealth countries, going on 'walkabouts' to gain direct contact with

people from all walks of life throughout the world.

Behind and in front of the cameras, The Queen's work goes on. No two days

in The Queen's working life are ever the same.

QUEEN'S ROLE IN THE MODERN STATE

Until the end of the 17th century, British monarchs were executive

monarchs - that is, they had the right to make and pass legislation. Since

the beginning of the eighteenth century, the monarch has become a

constitutional monarch, which means that he or she is bound by rules and

conventions and remains politically impartial.

On almost all matters he or she acts on the advice of ministers. While

acting constitutionally, the Sovereign retains an important political role

as Head of State, formally appointing prime ministers, approving certain

legislation and bestowing honours.

The Queen also has important roles to play in other organisations,

including the Armed Forces and the Church of England.

QUEEN'S ROLE IN THE MODERN STATE

Until the end of the 17th century, British monarchs were executive

monarchs - that is, they had the right to make and pass legislation. Since

the beginning of the eighteenth century, the monarch has become a

constitutional monarch, which means that he or she is bound by rules and

conventions and remains politically impartial.

On almost all matters he or she acts on the advice of ministers. While

acting constitutionally, the Sovereign retains an important political role

as Head of State, formally appointing prime ministers, approving certain

legislation and bestowing honours.

The Queen also has important roles to play in other organisations,

including the Armed Forces and the Church of England.

QUEEN AND COMMONWEALTH

The Queen is not only Queen of the United Kingdom, but Head of the

Commonwealth, a voluntary association of 54 independent countries.

Most of these countries have progressed from British rule to independent

self-government, and the Commonwealth now serves to foster international co-

operation and trade links between people all over the world.

The Queen is also Queen of a number of Commonwealth realms, including

Australia, New Zealand and Canada.

ROYAL VISITS

Visits to all kinds of places throughout the United Kingdom, Commonwealth

and overseas are an important part of the work of The Queen and members of

the Royal family. They allow members of the Royal family to meet people

from all walks of life and backgrounds, to celebrate local and national

achievements and to strengthen friendships between different countries.

Many of the visits are connected to charities and other organisations with

which members of the Royal family are associated. In other cases, royal

visits help to celebrate historic occasions in the life of a region or

nation. All visits are carefully planned to ensure that as many people as

possible have the opportunity to see or meet members of the Royal family.

THE QUEEN'S WORKING DAY

The Queen has many different duties to perform every day. Some are

familiar public duties, such as Investitures, ceremonies, receptions or

visits within the United Kingdom or abroad. Away from the cameras, however,

The Queen's work goes on. It includes reading letters from the public,

official papers and briefing notes; audiences with political ministers or

ambassadors; and meetings with her Private Secretaries to discuss her

future diary plans. No two days are ever the same and The Queen must remain

prepared throughout.

CEREMONIES AND PAGEANTRY

The colourful ceremonies and traditions associated with the British

Monarchy are rich in history and meaning and fascinating to watch. In some,

The Queen takes part in person. In others - such as Guard Mounting or Swan

Upping - the ceremony is performed in The Queen's name. Many of the

ceremonies take place on a regular basis - every year or even every day -

which means that British people and visitors to London and other parts of

the United Kingdom may have an opportunity to see some of these interesting

events take place.

THE QUEEN'S CEREMONIAL DUTIES

The Queen has many ceremonial roles. Some - such as the State Opening of

Parliament, Audiences with new ambassadors and the presentation of

decorations at Investitures - relate to The Queen's role as Head of State.

Others - such as the presentation of Maundy money and the hosting of

garden parties - are historical ceremonies in which kings and queens have

taken part for decades or even centuries.

ROYAL PAGEANTRY AND TRADITIONS

In addition to the events in which The Queen takes part, there are many

other ceremonies and traditions associated with the British Monarchy. Some

of these have military associations, involving troops from the present

Armed Forces as well as the members of the historical royal bodyguard, the

Yeomen of the Guard. Others are traditions which are less well known than

the colourful pageantry but are interesting in their own right. Some - such

as the customary broadcasts by the Sovereign on Christmas Day and

Commonwealth Day - are fairly recent in origin, but have rapidly become

familiar and popular traditions.

ROYAL SUCCESSION

When a sovereign dies, or abdicates, a successor is immediately decided

according to rules which were laid down at the end of the seventeenth

century. The coronation of a new sovereign is a ceremony of great pageantry

and celebration that has remained essentially the same for over a thousand

years. As well as explaining accession, succession and coronation, this

section looks at the titles which have been held by different members of

the Royal Family throughout history.

THE ROYAL HOUSEHOLD

Divided into five departments, the Royal Household assists The Queen in

carrying out her official duties. Members of the Royal Household carry out

the work and roles which were performed by courtiers historically. There

are 645 full-time employees, employed across a wide range of professions.

People employed within the Royal Household are recruited from the general

workforce on merit, in terms of qualifications, experience and aptitude.

Details of the latest vacancies are listed in the Recruitment pages of this

section.

The Royal Household includes The Queen's Household, plus the Households

of other members of the Royal Family who undertake public engagements. The

latter comprise members of their private offices and other people who

assist with their public duties.

ROYAL HOUSEHOLD DEPARTMENTS

Royal Household's functions are divided across five departments, under

the overall authority of the Lord Chamberlain, the senior member of The

Queen's Household. These departments developed over centuries and

originated in the functions of the Royal Court. As a result, the

departments and many job titles have ancient names - the jobs themselves,

however, are thoroughly modern!

Most of the departments are based in Buckingham Palace, although there

are also offices in St. James's Palace, Windsor Castle and the Royal Mews.

Members of the Royal Household also often travel with The Queen on overseas

visits and during The Queen's stays at Balmoral Castle and Sandringham,

since The Queen's work continues even when she is away from London.

In addition to the full-time members of the Royal Household, there are

other part-time members of The Queen's Household. These include the Great

Officers of State who take part in important Royal ceremonies, as well as

Ladies-in-waiting, who are appointed personally by The Queen and female

members of the Royal Family.

RECRUITMENT

People are employed within the Royal Household from a wide range of

sectors and professions, including catering, housekeeping, accountancy,

secretarial and administrative fields, public relations, human resources

management, art curatorship and strategic planning disciplines. The special

nature of the Royal Household means that unique career opportunities are

available.

Employment in the Royal Household offers excellent career opportunities

for those who wish to take a new direction. Positions in the Royal

Household receive good remuneration and benefits. For domestic positions,

there are often enhanced by accommodation. The Royal Household is also

committed to training and development, including NVQ and vocational

training, general management and skills-based training across a range of

disciplines - from carriage driving to an in-house diploma for footmen

which is widely recognised in its specialised field as a valued vocational

qualification.

Jobs at Buckingham Palace and in other Royal residences are usually

advertised in national, regional or specialist media in the usual way.

Details of the latest vacancies are listed in the Recruitment pages of this

section and applications can be made by downloading the standard

application form. All positions are also advertised internally to encourage

career development and to offer opportunities for promotion to existing

employees.

A number of vacancies occur on a regular basis, including positions as

housemaids, footmen and secretaries. In addition, nearly 200 Wardens are

employed each year for Buckingham Palace's Summer Opening programme.

Speculative enquiries are welcome for these posts throughout the year.

Recruitment is in all cases on merit, in terms of qualifications,

experience and aptitude. The Royal Household is committed to Equal

Opportunities.

ANNIVERSARIES

Since 1917, the Sovereign has sent congratulatory messages to those

celebrating their 100th and 105th birthday and every year thereafter, and

to those celebrating their Diamond Wedding (60th), 65th, 70th wedding

anniversaries and every year thereafter. For many people, receiving a

message from The Queen on these anniversaries is a very special moment.

For data privacy reasons, there is no automatic alert from government

records for wedding anniversaries. The Department for Work and Pensions

informs the Anniversaries Office of birthdays for recipients of UK State

pensions. However, to ensure that a message is sent for birthdays and

wedding anniversaries alike, an application needs to be made by a relative

or friend in advance of the special day.

The Queen's congratulatory messages consist of a card containing a

personalised message with a facsimile signature. The card comes in a

special envelope, which is delivered through the normal postal channels.

More information about applying for a message and interesting facts about

the tradition are contained in this section.

ROYAL FINANCES

This section provides the latest information on Head of State

expenditure, together with information about Royal financial arrangements.

It includes information about the four sources of funding of The Queen

(or officials of the Royal Household acting on her behalf). The Civil List

meets official expenditure relating to The Queen's duties as Head of State

and Head of the Commonwealth. Grants-in-Aid from Parliament provide upkeep

of the Royal Palaces and for Royal travel. The Privy Purse is traditional

income for the Sovereign's public and private use. Her Majesty's personal

income meets entirely private expenditure.

The Queen pays tax on her personal income and capital gains. The Civil

List and the Grants-in-Aid are not taxed because they cover official

expenditure. The Privy Purse is fully taxable, subject to a deduction for

official expenditure.

These pages also contain information about the financial arrangements of

other members of the Royal Family, together with information on the Royal

Philatelic Collection.

HEAD OF STATE EXPENDITURE 2000-01

Head of State expenditure is the official expenditure relating to The

Queen's duties as Head of State and Head of the Commonwealth. Head of State

expenditure is met from public funds in exchange for the surrender by The

Queen of the revenue from the Crown Estate.

Head of State expenditure for 2001-02, at £35.3 million, is 1.0% higher

than in the previous year (a decrease of 1.3% in real terms). The £350,000

increase is mainly attributable to fire precautions work at the Palace of

Holyroodhouse, offset by the fact that costs transferred from other funding

sources to the Civil List with effect from 1st April 2001 are only included

in 2001 Civil List expenditure for nine months. They will be included for a

full year in 2002 and subsequently. Costs have been transferred to the

Civil List from other funding sources in order to utilise the Civil List

reserve brought forward at 1st January 2001. Head of State expenditure has

reduced from £84.6 million (expressed in current pounds) in 1991-92, a

reduction of 58%.

SOURCES OF FUNDING

The four sources of funding of The Queen, or officials of the Royal

Household acting on Her Majesty's behalf, are: the Civil List, the Grants-

in-Aid for upkeep of Royal Palaces and for Royal travel, the Privy Purse

and The Queen's personal wealth and income.

FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE PRINCE OF WALES

The Prince of Wales does not receive any money from the State. Instead,

he receives the annual net surplus of the Duchy of Cornwall and uses it to

meet the costs of all aspects of his public and private commitments, and

those of Prince William and Prince Harry.

The Duchy's name is derived from the Earldom of Cornwall, which Edward

III elevated to a duchy in 1337. The Duchy's founding charter included the

gift of estates spread throughout England. It also stated that the Duchy

should be in the stewardship of the Heir Apparent, to provide the Heir with

an income independent of the Sovereign or the State.

After 660 years, the Duchy's land holdings have become more diversified,

but the Duchy is still predominantly an agricultural estate. Today, it

consists of around 57,000 hectares, mostly in the South of England. It is

run on a commercial basis, as prescribed by the parliamentary legislation

which governs its activities.

Prince Charles became the 24th Duke of Cornwall on The Queen's accession

in 1952. He is in effect a trustee, and is not entitled to the proceeds of

disposals of assets. The Prince must pass on the estate intact, so that it

continues to provide an income from its assets for future Dukes of

Cornwall.

The Duchy's net surplus for the year to 31 March 2002 was £7,827,000. As

a Crown body, the Duchy is tax exempt, but The Prince of Wales voluntarily

pays income tax (currently at 40%) on his taxable income from it.

FINANCES OF THE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL FAMILY

Under the Civil List Acts, The Duke of Edinburgh receives an annual

parliamentary allowance to enable him to carry out public duties. Since

1993, The Queen has repaid to the Treasury the annual parliamentary

allowances received by other members of the Royal family.

The annual amounts payable to members of the Royal family (which are set

every ten years) were reset at their 1990 levels for the next ten years,

until December 2010. Apart from an increase of £45,000 on the occasion of

The Earl of Wessex's marriage, these amounts remain as follows:

Parliamentary annuity (not repaid by The Queen)

|HRH The Duke of Edinburgh | £359,000 |

Parliamentary annuities (repaid by The Queen)

|HRH The Duke of York |£249,000 |

|HRH The Earl of Wessex |£141,000 |

|HRH The Princess Royal |£228,000 |

|HRH Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester |£87,000 |

|TRH The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester | |

|TRH The Duke and Duchess of Kent HRH Princess Alexandra, Hon.|*£636,000 |

|Lady Ogilvy | |

* Of the £636,000, £175,000 is provided by The Queen to The Duke and

Duchess of Gloucester, £236,000 to The Duke and Duchess of Kent and

£225,000 to Princess Alexandra.

As with the Civil List itself, most of these sums are spent on staff who

support public engagements and correspondence.

TAXATION

The Queen has always been subject to Value Added Tax and other indirect

taxes and she has paid local rates (Council Tax) on a voluntary basis. In

1992, however, The Queen offered to pay income tax and capital gains tax on

a voluntary basis. As from 1993, her personal income has been taxable as

for any taxpayer and the Privy Purse is fully taxable, subject to a

deduction for official expenditure. The Civil List and the Grants-in-Aid

are not remuneration for The Queen and are thus disregarded for tax.

Although The Queen's estate will be subject to Inheritance Tax, bequests

from Sovereign to Sovereign are exempt. This is because constitutional

impartiality requires an appropriate degree of financial independence for

the Sovereign and because the Sovereign is unable to generate significant

new wealth through earnings or business activities. Also, the Sovereign

cannot retire and so cannot mitigate Inheritance Tax by passing on assets

at an early stage to his or her successor.

As a Crown body, the Duchy of Cornwall is tax exempt, but since 1969 The

Prince of Wales has made voluntary contributions to the Exchequer. As from

1993, The Prince's income from the Duchy has been fully subject to tax on a

voluntary basis. He has always paid tax, including income tax, in all other

respects.

ROYAL ASSETS

The Queen does not 'own' the Royal Palaces, art treasures from the Royal

Collection, jewellery heirlooms and the Crown Jewels, all of which are held

by Her Majesty as Sovereign and not as an individual. They must be passed

on to The Queen's successor in due course. The Queen and some members of

the Royal Family past and present have made private collections - such as

the stamp collection begun by George V. This is separate to the Royal

Collection, although exhibitions and loans of stamps are sometimes made.

SYMBOLS

Many of the most familiar objects and events in national life incorporate

Royal symbols or represent the Monarchy in some way. Flags, coats of arms,

the crowns and treasures used at coronations and some ceremonies, stamps,

coins and the singing of the national anthem have strong associations with

the Monarchy and play a significant part in our daily existence. Other

objects - such as the Great Seal of the Realm - may be less familiar to the

general public but still have a powerful symbolic role.

NATIONAL ANTHEM

'God Save The King' was a patriotic song first publicly performed in

London in 1745, which came to be referred to as the National Anthem from

the beginning of the nineteenth century. The words and tune are anonymous,

and may date back to the seventeenth century.

In September 1745 the 'Young Pretender' to the British Throne, Prince

Charles Edward Stuart, defeated the army of King George II at Prestonpans,

near Edinburgh. In a fit of patriotic fervour after news of Prestonpans had

reached London, the leader of the band at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane,

arranged 'God Save The King' for performance after a play. It was a

tremendous success and was repeated nightly thereafter. This practice soon

spread to other theatres, and the custom of greeting the Monarch with the

song as he or she entered a place of public entertainment was thus

established.

There is no authorised version of the National Anthem as the words are a

matter of tradition. Additional verses have been added down the years, but

these are rarely used. The words used are those sung in 1745, substituting

'Queen' for 'King' where appropriate. On official occasions, only the first

verse is usually sung, as follows:

God save our gracious Queen!

Long live our noble Queen!

God save the Queen!

Send her victorious,

Happy and glorious,

Long to reign over us,

God save the Queen.

An additional verse is occasionally sung:

Thy choicest gifts in store

On her be pleased to pour,

Long may she reign.

May she defend our laws,

And ever give us cause,

To sing with heart and voice,

God save the Queen.

The British tune has been used in other countries - as European visitors

to Britain in the eighteenth century noticed the advantage of a country

possessing such a recognised musical symbol - including Germany, Russia,

Switzerland and America (where use of the tune continued after

independence). Some 140 composers, including Beethoven, Haydn and Brahms,

have used the tune in their compositions.

ROYAL WARRANTS

Royal Warrants are granted to people or companies who have regularly

supplied goods or services for a minimum of five consecutive years to The

Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother or The

Prince of Wales. They are advised by the Lord Chamberlain who is head of

the Royal Household and chairman of the Royal Household Tradesmen's

Warrants Committee. Each of these four members of the Royal family can

grant only one warrant to any individual business. However, a business may

hold warrants from more than one member of the Royal family and a handful

of companies holds all four.

The warrants are a mark of recognition that tradesmen are regular

suppliers of goods and services to the Royal households. Strict regulations

govern the warrant, which allows the grantee or his company to use the

legend 'By Appointment' and display the Royal Arms on his products, such as

stationery, advertisements and other printed material, in his or her

premises and on delivery vehicles.

A Royal Warrant is initially granted for five years, after which time it

comes up for review by the Royal Household Tradesmen's Warrants Committee.

Warrants may not be renewed if the quality or supply for the product or

service is insufficient, as far as the relevant Royal Household is

concerned. A Warrant may, however, be cancelled at any time and is

automatically reviewed if the grantee dies or leaves the business, or if

the firm goes bankrupt or is sold. There are rules to ensure that high

standards are maintained.

Since the Middle Ages, tradesmen who have acted as suppliers of goods and

services to the Sovereign have received formal recognition. In the

beginning, this patronage took the form of royal charters given

collectively to various guilds in trades and crafts which later became

known as livery companies. Over the centuries, the relationship between the

Crown and individual tradesmen was formalised by the issue of royal

warrants.

In the reign of Henry VIII, Thomas Hewytt was appointed to 'Serve the

Court with Swannes and Cranes and all kinds of Wildfoule'. A hard-working

Anne Harris was appointed as the 'King's Laundresse'. Elizabeth I's

household book listed, among other things, the Yeomen Purveyors of 'Veales,

Beeves & Muttons; Sea & Freshwater Fish'. In 1684 goods and services to the

Palace included a Haberdasher of Hats, a Watchmaker in Reversion, an

Operator for the Teeth and a Goffe-Club Maker. According to the Royal

Kalendar of 1789, a Pin Maker, a Mole Taker, a Card Maker and a Rat Catcher

are among other tradesmen appointed to the court. A notable omission was

the Bug Taker - at that time one of the busiest functionaries at court but

perhaps not one to be recorded in a Royal Kalendar. Records also show that

in 1776 Mr Savage Bear was 'Purveyor of Greens Fruits and Garden Things',

and that in 1820 Mr William Giblet was supplying meat to the table of

George IV.

Warrant holders today represent a large cross-section of British trade

and industry (there is a small number of foreign names), ranging from dry

cleaners to fishmongers, and from agricultural machinery to computer

software. A number of firms have a record of Royal Warrants reaching back

over more than 100 years. Warrant-holding firms do not provide their goods

or services free to the Royal households, and all transactions are

conducted on a strictly commercial basis. There are currently approximately

800 Royal Warrant holders, holding over 1,100 Royal Warrants between them

(some have more than one Royal Warrant).

On 25 May 1840, a gathering of 'Her Majesty's Tradesmen' held a

celebration in honour of Queen Victoria's birthday. They later decided to

make this an annual event and formed themselves for the purpose into an

association which eventually became known as the Royal Warrant Holders

Association.

The Association acts both in a supervisory role to ensure that the

standards of quality and reliability in their goods and services are

upheld, and as a channel of communication for its members in their dealings

with the various departments of the Royal Household. The Association

ensures that the Royal Warrant is not used by those not entitled and is

correctly applied by those who are.

BANK NOTES AND COINAGE

There are close ties - past and present - between the Monarchy and the

monetary system. They can be seen, for example, in the title of the 'Royal

Mint' and the representation of the monarch on all circulating British

coinage.

The first coins were struck in the British Isles 2000 years ago using

designs copied from Greek coins. Following the Roman invasion of Britain in

43 AD, the Roman coinage system was introduced. After the decline of Roman

power in Britain from the fifth century AD, the silver penny eventually

emerged as the dominant coin circulating in England but no standardized

system was yet in place.

In the eighth century, as strong kings emerged with power over more than

one region, they began to centralize the currency. Offa introduced a new

coinage in the form of the silver penny, which for centuries was to be the

basis of the English currency. Alfred introduced further changes by

authorising mints in the burhs he had founded. By 800 AD coins regularly

bore the names of the kings for whom they were struck. A natural

development was the representation of their own images on their coins.

Coinage played a part in spreading the fame of kings - the more often coins

passed through men's hands, and the further afield they were taken by

plunder or trade, the more famous their royal sponsors became. Athelstan

(d. 939) is the first English king to be shown on his coins wearing a crown

or circlet. For many people, the king's image on coins was the only

likeness of the monarch which they were likely to see in their lifetimes.

By the end of the tenth century the English monarchy had the most

sophisticated coinage system in western Europe. The system allowed kings to

exploit the wealth of a much enlarged kingdom and to raise the very large

sums of money which they had to use as bribes to limit the effect of the

Vikings' invasions at the end of the tenth century.

For five centuries in England, until 1280, silver pennies were the only

royal coins in circulation. Gradually a range of denominations began to

emerge, and by the mid fourteenth century a regular coinage of gold was

introduced. The gold sovereign came into existence in 1489 under King Henry

VII. Throughout this period, counterfeiting coinage was regarded as a grave

crime against the state amounting to high treason and was punishable by

death under an English statute of 1350. The crime was considered to be an

interference with the administration of government and the representation

of the monarch. Until the nineteenth century the Royal Mint was based at

the Tower of London, and for centuries was therefore under the direct

control of the monarch.

The English monarchy was the first monarchy in the British Isles to

introduce a coinage for practical and propaganda purposes. Only one early

Welsh king, Hywel Dda, minted a coin, though it may not have been produced

in Wales itself. The first Scottish king to issue a coinage was David I (d.

1153). Until the reign of Alexander III (1249-1286) Scottish coinage was

only issued sparingly. During the reign of Alexander III coins began to be

minted in much larger quantities, a result of increasing trade with Europe

and the importation of foreign silver.

After the death of Alexander III in 1289, Scotland fell into a long

period of internal strife and war with England. A nominal coinage was

issued under John Balliol c.1296 and then in reign of Robert the Bruce

(1306-1329), but the first substantial issue of coinage did not come until

the reign of David II (1329-1371). The accession by James VI to the English

throne in 1603 saw the fixing of value of the Scottish coinage to a ratio

of 1 / 12 with English coinage. After the Act of Union in 1707 unique

Scottish coinage came to an end. The last Scottish minted coins were the

sterling issues based on the English denominations that were issued until

1709 with the "E" mintmark for Edinburgh. Some British coinages have

featured Scottish devices, the Royal Arms of Scotland or the thistle emblem

during the 20th century, but these are a part of the coinage of the United

Kingdom, not unique to Scotland.

In the United Kingdom a streamlining of coinage production took place in

the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Until the Restoration of Charles

II, coins were struck by hand. In 1816, there was a major change in the

British coinage, powered by the Industrial Revolution. The Royal Mint moved

from The Tower of London to new premises on nearby Tower Hill, and acquired

powerful new steam powered coining presses. Further changes took place in

the 1960s, when the Mint moved to modern premises at Llantrisant, near

Cardiff.

After over a thousand years and many changes in production techniques,

the monarch continues to be depicted on the obverse of modern UK coinage.

Certain traditions are observed in this representation. From the time of

Charles II onwards a tradition developed of successive monarchs being

represented on the coinage facing in the opposite direction to their

immediate predecessor. There was an exception to this in the brief reign of

Edward VIII, who liked portraits of himself facing to the left, even though

he should have faced to the right according to tradition. The designs for

proposed coins in the Mint collection show Edward VIII facing to the left.

The tradition has been restored since the reign of George VI.

During The Queen's reign there have been four representations of Her

Majesty on circulating coinage. The original coin portrait of Her Majesty

was by Mary Gillick and was adopted at the beginning of the reign in 1952.

The following effigy was by Arnold Machin OBE, RA, approved by the Queen in

1964. That portrait, which features the same tiara as the latest effigy,

was used on all the decimal coins from 1968. The next effigy was by Raphael

Maklouf FRSA and was adopted in 1985. The latest portrait was introduced in

1998 and is the work of Ian Rank-Broadley FRBS, FSNAD. In keeping with

tradition, the new portrait continues to show the Queen in profile facing

to the right. Her Majesty is wearing the tiara which she was given as a

wedding present by her grandmother Queen Mary.

Images of the monarch on bank notes are a much more recent invention.

Although bank notes began to be issued from the late seventeenth century,

they did not come to predominate over coins until the nineteenth century.

Only since 1960 has the British Sovereign been featured on English bank

notes, giving The Queen a unique distinction above her predecessors.

STAMPS

There is a close relationship between the British Monarchy and the postal

system of the United Kingdom. Present-day postal services have their

origins in royal methods of sending documents in previous centuries.

Nowadays, the image of The Queen on postage stamps preserves the connection

with the Monarchy.

For centuries letters on affairs of State to and from the Sovereign's

Court, and despatches in time of war, were carried by Messengers of the

Court and couriers employed for particular occasions. Henry VIII's Master

of the Posts set up post-stages along the major roads of the kingdom where

Royal Couriers, riding post-haste, could change horses. In Elizabeth I's

day, those carrying the royal mail were to 'blow their horn as oft as they

met company, or four times every mile'. Letters of particular urgency - for

example, reprieves for condemned prisoners - bore inscriptions such as

'Haste, haste - post haste - haste for life for life hast' and the sign of

the gallows. During the reign of James I (1603-25) all four posts of the

kingdom still centred on the Court: The Courte to Barwicke (the post to

Scotland); The Courte to Beaumoris (to Ireland); The Courte to Dover (to

Europe) and The Courte to Plymouth (the Royal Dockyard).

Charles I opened his posts to public use, as a means of raising money.

Although public use of the royal posts increased, the running of the mail

continued to centre round the post requirements of the Sovereign's Court.

Until the 1780's the Mails did not leave London until the Court letters had

been received at the General Post Office, and as late as 1807 Court letters

coming into London were, unlike ordinary letters, delivered the moment the

mail arrived. The postal system rapidly spread during Victoria's reign with

the introduction of the Uniform Penny Postage in 1840, and the Queen's

letters bore postage stamps like everyone else's. Royal Messengers

continued to carry certain letters by hand. The increase in the Court's

mail led to special postal facilities being provided in 1897 in the form of

a Court Post Office - an arrangement which still exists today under the

management of the Court Postmaster.

Symbols of the royal origins of the UK's postal system remain: a

miniature silhouette of the Monarch's head is depicted on all stamps; the

personal cyphers of The Queen and her predecessors (going back to Victoria)

appear on many letterboxes dating from their respective reigns throughout

the country; and the postal delivery service is known as the Royal Mail.

COATS OF ARMS

The function of the Royal Coat of Arms is to identify the person who is

Head of State. In respect of the United Kingdom, the royal arms are borne

only by the Sovereign. They are used in many ways in connection with the

administration and government of the country, for instance on coins, in

churches and on public buildings. They are familiar to most people as they

appear on the products and goods of Royal Warrant holders.

The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom have evolved over many years

and reflect the history of the Monarchy and of the country. In the design

the shield shows the various royal emblems of different parts of the United

Kingdom: the three lions of England in the first and fourth quarters, the

lion of Scotland in the second and the harp of Ireland in the third. It is

surrounded by a garter bearing the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense ('Evil

to him who evil thinks'), which symbolises the Order of the Garter, an

ancient order of knighthood of which the Queen is Sovereign. The shield is

supported by the English lion and Scottish unicorn and is surmounted by the

Royal crown. Below it appears the motto of the Sovereign, Dieu et mon droit

('God and my right'). The plant badges of the United Kingdom - rose,

thistle and shamrock - are often displayed beneath the shield.

Separate Scottish and English quarterings of the Royal Arms originate

from the Union of the Crown in 1603. The Scottish version of the Royal Coat

of Arms shows the lion of Scotland in the first and fourth quarters, with

that of England being in the second. The harp of Ireland is in the third

quarter. The mottoes read In defence and No one will attack me with

impunity. From the times of the Stuart kings, the Scottish quarterings have

been used for official purposes in Scotland (for example, on official

buildings and official publications).

The special position of Wales as a Principality was recognised by the

creation of the Prince of Wales long before the incorporation of the

quarterings for Scotland and Ireland in the Royal Arms. The arms of the

Prince of Wales show the arms of the ancient Principality in the centre as

well as these quarterings.

Coats of Arms of members of the Royal Family are broadly similar to The

Queen's with small differences to identify them.

GREAT SEAL

The Great Seal of the Realm is the chief seal of the Crown, used to show

the monarch's approval of important state documents. In today's

constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Government

of the day, but the seal remains an important symbol of the Sovereign's

role as Head of State.

The practice of using this seal began in the reign of Edward the

Confessor in the 11th century, when a double-sided metal matrix with an

image of the Sovereign was used to make an impression in wax for attachment

by ribbon or cord to royal documents. The seal meant that the monarch did

not need to sign every official document in person; authorisation could be

carried out instead by an appointed officer. In centuries when few people

could read or write, the seal provided a pictorial expression of royal

approval which all could understand. The uniqueness of the official seal -

only one matrix was in existence at any one time - also meant it was

difficult to forge or tamper with official documents.

The Great Seal matrix has changed many times throughout the centuries. A

new matrix is engraved at the beginning of each reign on the order of the

Sovereign; it is traditional that on the death of the Sovereign the old

seal is used until the new Sovereign orders otherwise. For many monarchs, a

single seal has sufficed. In the case of some long-reigning monarchs, such

as Queen Victoria, the original seal simply wore out and a series of

replacements was required.

The Queen has had two Great Seals during her reign. The first was

designed by Gilbert Ledward and came into service in 1953. Through long

usage and the heat involved in the sealing process, the matrix lost

definition. From summer 2001 a new Great Seal, designed by sculptor James

Butler and produced by the Royal Mint, has been in use. At a meeting of the

Privy Council on 18 July 2001 The Queen handed the new seal matrix over to

the Lord High Chancellor, currently Lord Irvine of Lairg, who is the

traditional keeper of the Great Seal.

The Great Seal matrix will be used to create seals for a range of

documents requiring royal approval, including letters patent, royal

proclamations, commissions, some writs (such as writs for the election of

Members of Parliament), and the documents which give power to sign and

ratify treaties. During the year 2000-01, more than 100 documents passed

under the Great Seal. Separate seals exist for Scotland - the Great Seal of

Scotland - and for Northern Ireland.

The process of sealing takes place nowadays at the House of Lords in the

office of the Clerk of the Crown in Chancery. A system of 'colour coding'

is used for the seal impression, depending on the type of document to which

it is being affixed. Dark green seals are affixed to letters patent which

elevate individuals to the peerage; blue seals are used for documents

relating to the close members of the Royal Family; and scarlet red is used

for documents appointing a bishop and for most other patents.

FLAGS

A number of different types of flag are associated with The Queen and the

Royal Family. The Union Flag (or Union Jack) originated as a Royal flag,

although it is now also flown by many people and organisations elsewhere in

the United Kingdom by long established custom. The Royal Standard is the

flag flown when The Queen is in residence in one of the Royal Palaces, on

The Queen's car on official journeys and on aircraft (when on the ground),

and represents the Sovereign and the United Kingdom. The Queen's personal

flag, adopted in 1960, is personal to her alone and can be flown by no one

other than The Queen. Members of the Royal Family have their own personal

variants on the Royal Standard. The Prince of Wales has additional

Standards which he uses in Wales and Scotland.

CROWNS AND JEWELS

The crowns and treasures associated with the British Monarchy are

powerful symbols of monarchy for the British people and, as such, their

value represents more than gold and precious stones. Today the crowns and

treasures associated with English kings and queens since 1660 and earlier

are used for the Coronation of Monarchs of the United Kingdom. The crowns

and regalia used by Scottish monarchs (the Honours of Scotland) and Princes

of Wales (the Honours of the Principality of Wales) continue to have

symbolic meaning in Scotland and Wales. All three collections of treasures

can be viewed today in their different locations - the Tower of London,

Edinburgh Castle and the National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.

TRANSPORT

The Queen's State and private motor cars are housed in the Royal Mews.

For official duties - providing transport for State and other visitors as

well as The Queen herself - there are nine State limousines, consisting of

one Bentley, five Rolls-Royces and three Daimlers. They are painted in

Royal maroon livery and the Bentley and Rolls-Royces uniquely do not have

registration number plates. Other vehicles include a number of Vauxhall

Sintra 'people carriers'.

The most recent State car, which is used for most of The Queen's

engagements, is a State Bentley presented to The Queen to mark her Golden

Jubilee in 2002. The one-off model, conceived by a Bentley-led consortium

of British motor industry manufacturers and suppliers, is the first Bentley

to be used for State occasions. It was designed with input from The Queen,

The Duke of Edinburgh and Her Majesty's Head Chauffeur.

In technical terms, the car has a monocoque construction, enabling

greater use to be made of the vehicle's interior space. This means the

transmission tunnel now runs underneath the floor, without encroaching on

the cabin and has enabled the stylists to work with a lowered roofline

whilst preserving the required interior height. The rear doors have been

redesigned enabling The Queen to stand up straight before stepping down to

the ground. The rear seats are upholstered in Hield Lambswool Sateen cloth

whilst all remaining upholstery is in light grey Connolly hide. Carpets are

pale blue in the rear and dark blue in the front.

A Rolls-Royce Phantom VI was presented to The Queen in 1978 for her

Silver Jubilee by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. The

oldest car in the fleet is the Phantom IV, built in 1950, 5.76 litre with a

straight eight engine and a Mulliner body. There is also a 1987 Phantom VI

and two identical Phantom V models built in the early 1960s. The 1978

Phantom VI and the two Phantom V models have a removable exterior roof

covering, which exposes an inner lining of perspex, giving a clear view of

passengers.

All the cars have fittings for the shield bearing the Royal Coat of Arms

and the Royal Standard. The Queen has her own mascot for use on official

cars. Designed for her by the artist Edward Seago in the form of St George

on a horse poised victorious over a slain dragon, it is made of silver and

can be transferred from car to car as necessary. The Duke of Edinburgh's

mascot, a heraldic lion wearing a crown, is adapted from his arms.

For her private use The Queen drives a Daimler Jaguar saloon or a

Vauxhall estate (like every other qualified driver, The Queen holds a

driving licence). The Duke of Edinburgh has a Range Rover and, for short

journeys round London, uses a Metrocab. The private cars are painted

Edinburgh green.

A number of Royal Mews vehicles have now been converted to run on

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - a more environmentally friendly fuel than

petrol or diesel. Converted vehicles include one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom

IVs, a Daimler and The Duke of Edinburgh's Metrocab.

CARS

The Queen's State and private motor cars are housed in the Royal Mews.

For official duties - providing transport for State and other visitors as

well as The Queen herself - there are nine State limousines, consisting of

one Bentley, five Rolls-Royces and three Daimlers. They are painted in

Royal maroon livery and the Bentley and Rolls-Royces uniquely do not have

registration number plates. Other vehicles include a number of Vauxhall

Sintra 'people carriers'.

The most recent State car, which is used for most of The Queen's

engagements, is a State Bentley presented to The Queen to mark her Golden

Jubilee in 2002. The one-off model, conceived by a Bentley-led consortium

of British motor industry manufacturers and suppliers, is the first Bentley

to be used for State occasions. It was designed with input from The Queen,

The Duke of Edinburgh and Her Majesty's Head Chauffeur.

In technical terms, the car has a monocoque construction, enabling

greater use to be made of the vehicle's interior space. This means the

transmission tunnel now runs underneath the floor, without encroaching on

the cabin and has enabled the stylists to work with a lowered roofline

whilst preserving the required interior height. The rear doors have been

redesigned enabling The Queen to stand up straight before stepping down to

the ground. The rear seats are upholstered in Hield Lambswool Sateen cloth

whilst all remaining upholstery is in light grey Connolly hide. Carpets are

pale blue in the rear and dark blue in the front.

A Rolls-Royce Phantom VI was presented to The Queen in 1978 for her

Silver Jubilee by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. The

oldest car in the fleet is the Phantom IV, built in 1950, 5.76 litre with a

straight eight engine and a Mulliner body. There is also a 1987 Phantom VI

and two identical Phantom V models built in the early 1960s. The 1978

Phantom VI and the two Phantom V models have a removable exterior roof

covering, which exposes an inner lining of perspex, giving a clear view of

passengers.

All the cars have fittings for the shield bearing the Royal Coat of Arms

and the Royal Standard. The Queen has her own mascot for use on official

cars. Designed for her by the artist Edward Seago in the form of St George

on a horse poised victorious over a slain dragon, it is made of silver and

can be transferred from car to car as necessary. The Duke of Edinburgh's

mascot, a heraldic lion wearing a crown, is adapted from his arms.

For her private use The Queen drives a Daimler Jaguar saloon or a

Vauxhall estate (like every other qualified driver, The Queen holds a

driving licence). The Duke of Edinburgh has a Range Rover and, for short

journeys round London, uses a Metrocab. The private cars are painted

Edinburgh green.

A number of Royal Mews vehicles have now been converted to run on

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) - a more environmentally friendly fuel than

petrol or diesel. Converted vehicles include one of the Rolls-Royce Phantom

IVs, a Daimler and The Duke of Edinburgh's Metrocab.

CARRIAGES

Housed in the Royal Mews is the collection of historic carriages and

coaches, most of which are still in use to convey members of the Royal

family in State ceremonial processions or on other royal occasions.

The oldest coach is the Gold State Coach, first used by George III when

he opened Parliament in 1762 and used for every coronation since George

IV's in 1821. As its name implies, it is gilded all over and the exterior

is decorated with painted panels. It weighs four tons and requires eight

horses to pull it.

The coach now used by The Queen at the State Opening of Parliament is

known as the Irish State Coach because the original was built in 1851 by

the Lord Mayor of Dublin, who was also a coachbuilder. Although extensively

damaged by fire in 1911, the existing coach was completely restored in 1989

by the Royal Mews carriage restorers, who stripped the coach to the bare

wood and applied twenty coats of paint, including gilding and varnishing.

The exterior is blue and black with gilt decoration and the interior is

covered in blue damask. It is normally driven from the box seat using four

horses.

Other coaches include the Scottish State Coach (built in 1830 and used

for Scottish and English processions), Queen Alexandra's State Coach (used

to convey the Imperial State Crown to Parliament for the State Opening),

the 1902 State Landau, the Australian State Coach (presented to The Queen

in 1988 by the Australian people to mark Australia's bicentenary), the

Glass Coach (built in 1881 and used for royal weddings) and the State and

Semi-State Landaus (used in State processions).

In addition there are two barouches, broughams (which every day carry

messengers on their official rounds in London), Queen Victoria's Ivory-

Mounted Phaeton (used by The Queen since 1987 for her Birthday Parade) as

well as a number of other carriages. In all, there are over 100 coaches and

carriages in the Royal Collection.

All the carriages and coaches are maintained by craftsmen in the Royal

Mews department and some of the coaches and carriages can be viewed on days

when the Royal Mews is open to the public.

THE ROYAL TRAIN

Modern Royal Train vehicles came into operation in 1977 with the

introduction of four new saloons to mark The Queen's Silver Jubilee. This

continued a service which originated on 13 June, 1842, when the engine

Phlegethon, pulling the royal saloon and six other carriages, transported

Queen Victoria from Slough to Paddington. The journey took 25 minutes.

It is perhaps somewhat misleading to talk of 'the Royal Train' because

the modern train consists of carriages drawn from a total of eight purpose-

built saloons, pulled by one of the two Royal Class 47 diesel locomotives,

Prince William or Prince Henry. The exact number and combination of

carriages forming a Royal Train is determined by factors such as which

member of the Royal family is travelling and the time and duration of the

journey. When not pulling the Royal Train, the two locomotives are used for

general duties.

The Royal Train enables members of the Royal family to travel overnight,

at times when the weather is too bad to fly, and to work and hold meetings

during lengthy journeys. It has modern office and communications

facilities. Journeys on the train are always organised so as not to

interfere with scheduled services. (Where appropriate, The Queen and other

members of the Royal family use scheduled services for their official

journeys.)

The carriages are a distinctive maroon with red and black coach lining

and a grey roof. The carriages available include the royal compartments,

sleeping, dining and support cars. The Queen's Saloon has a bedroom,

bathroom and a sitting room with an entrance which opens onto the platform.

The Duke of Edinburgh's Saloon has a similar layout plus a kitchen. Fitted

out at the former British Rail's Wolverton Works in Buckinghamshire,

Scottish landscapes by Roy Penny and Victorian prints of earlier rail

journeys hang in both saloons.

A link with the earliest days of railways is displayed in the Duke of

Edinburgh's Saloon: a piece of Isambard Kingdom Brunel's original broad

gauge rail, presented on the 150th anniversary of the Great Western

Railway. (Brunel accompanied Queen Victoria on her inaugural 1842 journey.)

The current Queen's and Duke's Saloons came into service in 1977, when

they were extensively used during the Silver Jubilee royal tours. They were

not, however, new. They began life in 1972 as prototypes for the standard

Inter-City Mark III passenger carriage and were subsequently fitted out for

their royal role at the Wolverton Works. All work on the Royal Train is

normally done at Wolverton.

Railtrack PLC manages the Royal Train and owns the rolling stock. Day-to-

day operations are conducted by another privatised company, English, Welsh

and Scottish Railways. The cost of maintaining and using the train is met

by the Royal Household from the Grant-in-Aid which it receives from

Parliament each year for air and rail travel. In 2000-01 the total cost of

the Royal Train was £596,000; the train made 17 journeys.

A number of former Royal Train carriages are now on display at the

National Railway Museum in York.

ROYAL AIR TRAVEL

The history of Royal flying dates back more than 80 years to 1917, when

The Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) became the first member of the

Royal family to fly, in France during the First World War. The Prince went

on to become a skilful pilot. From 1930 onwards members of the Royal family

made increasing use of aircraft, largely operating from Hendon in north

London. In 1936, on becoming King Edward VIII, the former Prince of Wales

was the first British Monarch to fly.

Since then many members of the Royal family have learnt to fly. The Duke

of York trained as a Royal Navy helicopter pilot and flew in operations

during the 1982 Falklands Conflict - the first member of the Royal family

to see active service since the Second World War. In an unblemished flying

career spanning more than 40 years The Duke of Edinburgh has flown more

different aircraft types than most pilots. The Prince of Wales, too, has

accumulated many hours flying both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft.

Royal flying was formalised on 21 July 1936 with the creation of The

King's Flight at Hendon. The new flight operated a single twin-engine

Dragon Rapide, G-ADDD, formerly the king's private aircraft. The first

Captain of the King's Flight was Wing Commander E.H. Fielden (who later

became an Air Vice-Marshal). The Dragon Rapide was replaced in May 1937 by

an Airspeed Envoy III, G-AEXX, the first aircraft purchased specifically

for the Flight. The Second World War saw The King's Flight temporarily

disbanded, although members of the Royal family continued to fly using

military aircraft.

In 1946 The King's Flight was reformed, in greater strength, at RAF

Benson with four Vickers Vikings. The following year all were heavily used

during the Royal Tour of South Africa.

After The Queen's accession The King's Flight was renamed The Queen's

Flight. The first helicopter - a Westland Dragonfly - was acquired in

September 1954 and was quickly championed by The Duke of Edinburgh (who

qualified as a helicopter pilot the following year). It was replaced in

1958 by two Westland Whirlwinds. In 1964 Hawker Siddeley Andovers were

introduced for fixed wing flying and saw more than 25 years of service

before being superceded, in the Flight's 50th anniversary year, by the

current British Aerospace 146. In June 1969 the Whirlwinds were replaced by

two Westland Wessex. These served for nearly 30 years, together making more

than 10,000 flights and each flying the equivalent of 20 times around the

world, before being replaced on 1 April 1998 by a single Sikorsky S-76.

In 1995, The Queen's Flight was amalgamated with No. 32 Squadron, which

was renamed No 32 (The Royal) Squadron. At the same time the squadron moved

from RAF Benson to its current location at RAF Northolt.

Nowadays, official flying for members of the Royal family is provided by

BAe 146 and Hawker S125 jet aircraft of No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron, based

at RAF Northolt just north west of London, and the Sikorsky S-76 helicopter

operated by the Royal Household from Blackbushe Aerodrome in Hampshire. In

2000-01, 32 Squadron had two four-engined BAe 146s (each of which carries

19 to 23 passengers) and five twin-engined HS 125s (each of which carries

seven passengers). The Royal Travel Office based at RAF Northolt co-

ordinates use of the different types of aircraft by members of the Royal

family, ensuring that their use is both appropriate and cost-effective.

In 2000-01, the BAe 146 were used for Royal flying over 142 flying hours,

the HS125 for 149 flying hours and the Sikorsky for 459 flying hours. No.

32 (The Royal) Squadron is primarily a Royal Air Force communications

flying squadron. In fact, Royal flying accounts for less than 20% of the

combined tasking of both the BAe 146 and the HS125, which are more commonly

used by senior military officers and Government ministers.

The cost of official royal travel by air is met by the Royal Travel Grant-

in-aid, the annual funding provided by the Department of Transport, Local

Government and the Regions (DTLGR). In 2000-01, the cost of official royal

travel by 32 Squadron was £1,793,000.

Aircraft of No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron have a distinctive red, blue and

white livery; the Royal Household S-76 is finished in the red and blue

colours of the Brigade of Guards (as were aircraft in the early days of

Royal flying).

Today, the BAe 146 and HS 125 of No 32 (The Royal) Squadron and the Royal

Household's S-76 are used for official duties by The Queen and, at her

discretion, other members of the Royal family, continuing a tradition begun

with a single aircraft more than 60 years ago.

THE ROYAL FAMILY

MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL FAMILY

In her role as Head of State The Queen is supported by members of the

Royal Family, who carry out a wide range of public and official duties. The

biographies in this section contain information about various members of

the Royal Family, including early life and education, professional careers,

official Royal work, involvement with charities and other organisations,

personal interests and more

HM THE QUEEN

The Queen was born in London on 21 April 1926, the first child of The

Duke and Duchess of York, subsequently King George VI and Queen Elizabeth.

Five weeks later she was christened Elizabeth Alexandra Mary in the chapel

at Buckingham Palace.

The Princess's early years were spent at 145 Piccadilly, the London

house taken by her parents shortly after her birth; at White Lodge in

Richmond Park; and at the country homes of her grandparents, King George V

and Queen Mary, and the Earl and Countess of Strathmore. When she was six

years old, her parents took over Royal Lodge in Windsor Great Park as their

own country home.

HRH THE DUKE OF EDINBURGH

Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth and Baron Greenwich,

was born Prince of Greece and Denmark in Corfu on 10 June 1921; the only

son of Prince Andrew of Greece. His paternal family is of Danish descent -

Prince Andrew was the grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark. His mother

was Princess Alice of Battenberg, the eldest child of Prince Louis of

Battenberg and sister of Earl Mountbatten of Burma. Prince Louis became a

naturalised British subject in 1868, joined the Royal Navy and rose to

become an Admiral of the Fleet and First Sea Lord in 1914. During the First

World War he changed the family name to Mountbatten and was created

Marquess of Milford Haven. Prince Philip adopted the family name of

Mountbatten when he became a naturalised British subject and renounced his

Royal title in 1947.

Prince Louis married one of Queen Victoria's granddaughters. Thus, The

Queen and Prince Philip both have Queen Victoria as a great-great-

grandmother. They are also related through his father's side. His paternal

grandfather, King George I of Greece, was Queen Alexandra's brother.

HRH THE PRINCE OF WALES AND FAMILY

The Prince of Wales, eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip,

Duke of Edinburgh, is heir apparent to the throne.

The Prince was born at Buckingham Palace on 14 November 1948, and was

christened Charles Philip Arthur George.

When, on the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1952, he became heir

apparent, Prince Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall under a

charter of King Edward III dating back to 1337, which gave that title to

the Sovereign's eldest son. He also became, in the Scottish Peerage, Duke

of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick and Baron Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and

Prince and Great Steward of Scotland.

The Prince was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in 1958. In

1968, The Prince of Wales was installed as a Knight of the Garter. The Duke

of Rothesay (as he is known in Scotland) was appointed a Knight of the

Thistle in 1977. In June 2002 The Prince of Wales was appointed to the

Order of Merit.

HRH THE DUKE OF YORK

The Duke of York was born on 19 February 1960 at Buckingham Palace. He is

the second son and the third child of The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh.

He was the first child to be born to a reigning monarch for 103 years.

Named Andrew Albert Christian Edward he was known as Prince Andrew until

his marriage, when he was created The Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and

Baron Killyleagh.

TRH THE EARL AND COUNTESS OF WESSEX

The Earl of Wessex is the third son and youngest child of The Queen and

The Duke of Edinburgh. He was born on 10 March 1964 and christened Edward

Antony Richard Louis at Buckingham Palace. He was known as Prince Edward

until his marriage, when he was created The Earl of Wessex and Viscount

Severn; at the same time it was announced that His Royal Highness will

eventually succeed to the title of The Duke of Edinburgh.

In March 1989, The Queen appointed Prince Edward a Commander of the Royal

Victorian Order.

HRH PRINCESS ROYAL

The Princess Royal, the second child and only daughter of The Queen and

The Duke of Edinburgh, was born at Clarence House, London, on 15 August

1950, when her mother was Princess Elizabeth, heir presumptive to the

throne. She was baptised Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise at Buckingham Palace

on 21 October 1950.

She received the title Princess Royal from The Queen in June 1987; she

was previously known as Princess Anne. Her Royal Highness is the seventh

holder of the title.

In 1994 The Queen appointed The Princess a Lady of the Most Noble Order

of the Garter. In 2000, to mark her 50th birthday, The Princess Royal was

appointed to the Order of the Thistle, in recognition of her work for

charities.

HRH PRINCESS ALICE

Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester is the widow of the late Duke of

Gloucester, third son of George V.

Lady Alice Christabel Montagu Douglas Scott was born on Christmas Day,

1901 at Montagu House, London. She was the third daughter of the seventh

Duke of Buccleuch, who had been a fellow midshipman of the future king

George V.

Lady Alice was educated at home until the age of 12. She then went to

school at West Malvern, spending a year in Paris before returning home to

be presented at Court in 1920. Lady Alice has greatly enjoyed outdoor

pursuits, including skiing, and has been an accomplished watercolourist.

She also travelled widely, living for many months in Kenya and also

spending time in India on a visit to her brother.

TRH THE DUKE AND DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER

Born in 1944, The Duke of Gloucester is the second son of the late Duke

of Gloucester and Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester. He is a grandson

of George V and a first cousin to The Queen. He succeeded his father as

Duke of Gloucester in June 1974.

In July 1972 Prince Richard (as he was then known) married Birgitte Eva

van Deurs from Odense, Denmark at St Andrew's Church, Barnwell,

Northamptonshire. The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester have three children:

(Alexander) Earl of Ulster, born in 1974; The Lady Davina Windsor, born in

1977; and The Lady Rose Windsor, born in 1980.

The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester both carry out a large number of

official engagements each year, individually and together. They undertake

visits in regions throughout the United Kingdom and travel abroad on

official visits and to support their varied patronages.

TRH THE DUKE AND DUCHESS OF KENT

Born in 1935, HRH The Duke of Kent is the son of the late Prince George,

fourth son of King George V, and the late Princess Marina, daughter of

Prince Nicholas of Greece. He is cousin to both The Queen and The Duke of

Edinburgh. The present Duke of Kent inherited his title following the death

of his father in 1942.

In 1961 The Duke of Kent became engaged to Miss Katharine Worsley and

they married in York Minster. The couple have three children: George, Earl

of St Andrews, born in June 1962; Lady Helen Taylor, born in April 1964 and

Lord Nicholas Windsor, born on 25 July 1970.

The Duke and The Duchess of Kent undertake a large number of official

Royal engagements. Each has close associations with many charities,

professional bodies and other organisations.

TRH PRINCE AND PRINCESS MICHAEL OF KENT

Prince Michael was born on 4 July 1942 at the family home in Iver,

Buckinghamshire. He was christened Michael George Charles Franklin and one

of his godfathers was President Roosevelt. He is a cousin to both The Queen

and The Duke of Edinburgh, and his older brother and sister are The Duke of

Kent and Princess Alexandra. Prince Michael's father, Prince George, was

the fourth son of George V and his mother, Princess Marina, was the

daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece.

The Prince is a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order.

HRH PRINCESS ALEXANDRA

Princess Alexandra was born on Christmas Day 1936 at 3, Belgrave Square,

her family's London home. She is the second child and only daughter of the

late Duke and Duchess of Kent (her brothers are the present Duke of Kent

and Prince Michael of Kent). Much of her childhood was spent at their

country home, Coppins, in Buckinghamshire. Her father was killed in a

wartime flying accident in 1942 when she was just five years old.

MEMORIAL PLAQUE

HM QUEEN ELIZABETH THE QUEEN MOTHER

4 August 1900 - 30 March 2002

Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother died peacefully in her sleep

on Saturday 30 March 2002, at Royal Lodge, Windsor. Queen Elizabeth was a

much-loved member of the Royal Family. Her life, spanning over a century,

was devoted to the service of her country, the fulfilment of her Royal

duties and the support of her family.

HRH THE PRINCESS MARGARET

21 AUGUST 1930 - 9 FEBRUARY 2002

Her Royal Highness The Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon died

peacefully in her sleep on Saturday 9 February, 2002, in The King Edward

VII Hospital, London.

The younger daughter of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen

Mother, and sister to The Queen, Princess Margaret was a hardworking and

much-loved member of the Royal Family.

Read more about the Princess and her funeral and memorial services in

this section.

DIANA, PRINCESS OF WALES

Diana, Princess of Wales died on Sunday, 31 August 1997 following a car

crash in Paris. There was widespread public mourning at the death of this

popular figure, culminating with her funeral at Westminster Abbey on

Saturday, 6 September 1997. Even after her death, however, the Princess's

work lives on in the form of commemorative charities and projects set up to

help those in need.

ART AND RESIDENCES

THE ROYAL COLLECTION

The Royal Collection, one of the finest art collections in the world, is

held in trust by The Queen as Sovereign for her successors and the Nation.

It is on public display at the principal royal residences and is shown in a

programme of special exhibitions and through loans to institutions around

the world.

ABOUT THE ROYAL COLLECTION

Shaped by the personal tastes of kings and queens over more than 500

years, the Royal Collection includes paintings, drawings and watercolours,

furniture, ceramics, clocks, silver, sculpture, jewellery, books,

manuscripts, prints and maps, arms and armour, fans, and textiles. It is

held in trust by The Queen as Sovereign for her successors and the Nation,

and is not owned by her as a private individual. Curatorial and

administrative responsibility for the Collection is held by the Royal

Collection Department, part of the Royal Household.

The Collection has largely been formed since the Restoration of the

Monarchy in 1660. Some items belonging to earlier monarchs, for

example Henry VIII, also survive. The greater part of the magnificent

collection inherited and added to by Charles I was dispersed on

Cromwell's orders during the Interregnum. The royal patrons now chiefly

associated with notable additions to the Collection are Frederick, Prince

of Wales; George III; George IV; Queen Victoria and Prince Albert; and

Queen Mary, Consort of George V.

The Royal Collection is on display at the principal royal residences, all

of which are open to the public. Unlike most art collections of national

importance, works of art from the Royal Collection can be enjoyed in the

historic settings for which they were originally commissioned or acquired.

Much of the Collection is still in use at the working royal palaces.

The official residences of The Queen have a programme of changing

exhibitions to show further areas of the Collection to the public,

particularly those items that cannot be on permanent display for

conservation reasons. The Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen will be

marked by the creation of two flagship exhibition spaces at Buckingham

Palace and the Palace of Holyroodhouse.

Loans are made to institutions throughout the world, as part of the

commitment to make the Collection widely available and to show works of art

in new contexts. Touring exhibitions remain an important part of the Royal

Collection's work to broaden public access.

Over 3,000 objects from the Royal Collection are on long-term loan to

museums and galleries around the United Kingdom and abroad. National

institutions housing works of art from the Collection include The British

Museum, National Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Museum of

London, the National Museum of Wales and the National Gallery of Scotland.

The Royal Collection is the only collection of major national importance

to receive no Government funding or public subsidy and is administered by

the Royal Collection Trust, a registered charity. The Trust was set up by

The Queen in 1993 under the chairmanship of The Prince of Wales, following

the establishment of the Royal Collection Department as a new department of

the Royal Household in 1987. Income from the public opening of Windsor

Castle, Buckingham Palace and the Palace of Holyroodhouse and from

associated retail activities supports curatorial, conservation and

educational work, loans and travelling exhibitions and major capital

projects. These projects include the restoration of Windsor Castle after

the fire in 1992, the rebuilding of The Queen's Gallery at Buckingham

Palace and the construction of an entirely new gallery at the Palace of

Holyroodhouse.

THE ROYAL COLLECTION TRUST

The Royal Collection is the only collection of major national importance

to receive no Government funding or public subsidy. It is administered by

the Royal Collection Trust, a registered charity established by The Queen

in 1993 under the chairmanship of The Prince of Wales. The role of the

Trust is to ensure that the Collection is conserved and displayed to the

highest standards and that public understanding of and access to the

Collection is increased through exhibition, publication, education and a

programme of loans.

These wide-ranging activities are funded by monies raised through the

Trust's trading arm, Royal Collection Enterprises, from the public opening

of Windsor Castle, Buckingham Palace and the Palace of Holyroodhouse and

from retail sales of publications and other merchandise. Current projects

funded through the Royal Collection Trust include the major expansion of

exhibition space at Buckingham Palace and at the Palace of Holyroodhouse to

mark The Queen's Golden Jubilee in 2002.

The Royal Collection Trust determines how the income generated should be

used in pursuit of its stated objectives.

The Trust's primary aims are to ensure that:

- the Collection is subject to proper custodial control;

- the Collection is maintained and conserved to the highest possible

standards;

- as much of the Collection as possible can be seen by members of the

public;

- the Collection is presented and interpreted so as to enhance the public's

appreciation and understanding;

- appropriate acquisitions are made when resources become available.

ROYAL COLLECTION ENTERPRISES

Royal Collection Enterprises Limited, the trading subsidiary of the Royal

Collection Trust, generates income for the presentation and conservation of

the Royal Collection, and for projects to increase public access. It is

responsible for the management and financial administration of public

admission to Windsor Castle and Frogmore House, Buckingham Palace,

including the Royal Mews, and The Queen's Galleries. Royal Collection

Enterprises also promotes access to the Royal Collection through

publishing, retail merchandise and the Picture Library.

PUBLISHING

Publishing forms an important part of the Royal Collection Trust's

ongoing programme to extend knowledge and enjoyment of the Collection's

treasures. Over fifty books about the Royal Collection have been produced

in recent years, ranging from scholarly exhibition catalogues to books for

children.

In the mid-1990s the Royal Collection established its own imprint to

build a definitive series about the royal residences and the works of art.

These books are written by or in consultation with the Royal Collection's

own curators.

Royal Collection publications are available from the Royal Collection

shops at the Royal Mews, Windsor Castle, the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the

Summer Opening of the State Rooms at Buckingham Palace.

All profits from the sale of Royal Collection publications are dedicated

to the Royal Collection Trust.

ROYAL RESIDENCES

The Royal Collection comprises the contents of all the royal palaces.

These include the official residences of The Queen, where the Collection

plays an important part in the life of a working palace - Buckingham

Palace, Windsor Castle and the Palace of Holyroodhouse (administered by the

Royal Collection Trust); the unoccupied residences - Hampton Court Palace,

Kensington Palace (State Apartments), Kew Palace, the Banqueting House,

Whitehall and the Tower of London (administered by the Historic Royal

Palaces Trust); and Osborne House (owned and administered by English

Heritage).

Items from the Collection may also be seen at the private homes of The

Queen - Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle.

ROYAL COLLECTION GALLERIES

Dedicated gallery spaces allow works from the Collection to be presented

and interpreted in different contexts, outside their historic settings, and

give public access to items that cannot be on permanent display for

conservation reasons. The exhibitions in The Queen's Galleries are

accompanied by full catalogues, bringing to the public new research on the

subject by the Royal Collection's curators.

LATEST EXHIBITION NEWS

The new Queen's Gallery at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh was

inaugurated by Her Majesty The Queen on 29 November 2002 and opened its

doors to the public the following day, St Andrew's Day. The inaugural

exhibition is Leonardo da Vinci: The Divine and the Grotesque (30 November

2002 - 30 March 2003), the largest exhibition devoted to Leonardo da Vinci

ever held in Scotland and the first to examine the artist's life-long

obsession with the human form. All 68 works come from the Royal Collection,

which holds the world's finest group of Leonardo's drawings.

A new exhibition also opened at Windsor Castle in the Drawings Gallery on

9 November 2002. The exhibition celebrates the centenary of the Order of

Merit with a series of original drawings of holders of the honour, past and

present. It also features manuscripts and badges from former holders.

LOANS

Some 3,000 objects from the Royal Collection are on long-term loan to 160

institutions across the UK and overseas. These include the Raphael

Cartoons of The Acts of the Apostles at the Victoria and Albert Museum, the

Van der Goes Trinity Altarpiece at the National Gallery of Scotland, and

the Roman sculpture The Lely Venus, at The British Museum.

Every year hundreds of objects from the Collection are lent to special

exhibitions worldwide. These loans support international scholarship and

enable material to be seen in new contexts.

Touring exhibitions of works from the Royal Library are an important way

to broaden access to items that, for conservation reasons, cannot be on

permanent display. The millennial exhibition Ten Religious Masterpieces

was the year 2000's most popular art exhibition outside London, attracting

over 200,000 visitors over the period of its tour.

THE ROYAL RESIDENCES

The residences associated with today's Royal Family are divided into the

Occupied Royal Residences, which are held in trust for future generations,

and the Private Estates which have been handed down to The Queen by earlier

generations of the Royal Family.

Beautifully furnished with treasures from the Royal Collection, most of

the Royal residences are open to the public when not in official use.

These pages contain details of the history and role of these Residences

and Estates, and provide information for visitors on opening times and

admission prices for those that are open to the public.

ABOUT THE ROYAL RESIDENCES

Throughout the centuries, Britain's kings and queens have built or bought

palaces to serve as family homes, workplaces and as centres of government.

The residences associated with today's Royal Family are divided into the

Occupied Royal Residences, which are held in trust for future generations,

and the Private Estates which have been handed down to The Queen by earlier

generations of the Royal Family.

BUCKINGHAM PALACE

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Buckingham Palace has served as the official London residence of

Britain's sovereigns since 1837. It evolved from a town house that was

owned from the beginning of the eighteenth century by the Dukes of

Buckingham. Today it is The Queen's official residence. Although in use for

the many official events and receptions held by The Queen, areas of

Buckingham Palace are opened to visitors on a regular basis.

The State Rooms of the Palace are open to visitors during the Annual

Summer Opening in August and September. They are lavishly furnished with

some of the greatest treasures from the Royal Collection - paintings by

Rembrandt, Rubens, Vermeer, Poussin, Canaletto and Claude; sculpture by

Canova and Chantrey; exquisite examples of Sèvres porcelain, and some of

the finest English and French furniture in the world.

Visits to Buckingham Palace can be combined with visits to The Queen's

Gallery, which reopened in May 2002.

THE QUEEN’S GALLERY, BUCKINGHAM PALACE

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The Queen's Gallery at Buckingham Palace is a permanent space dedicated

to changing exhibitions of items from the Royal Collection, the wide-

ranging collection of art and treasures held in trust by The Queen for the

nation. Constructed forty years ago on the west front of Buckingham Palace

out of the bomb-damaged ruins of the former private chapel, the gallery has

recently been redeveloped. It was reopened by The Queen on 21 May 2002 and

is now open to the public on a daily basis.

The inaugural exhibition of the redeveloped gallery is a spectacular

celebration of the individual tastes of monarchs and other members of the

royal family who have shaped one of the world's greatest collections of

art. Mixing the famous with the unexpected, the selection of 450

outstanding works for Royal Treasures: A Golden Jubilee Celebration has

been made across the entire breadth of the Royal Collection, from eight

royal residences and over five centuries of collecting.

THE ROYAL MEWS

One of the finest working stables in existence, the Royal Mews at

Buckingham Palace provides a unique opportunity for visitors to see the

work of the Royal Household department that provides road transport for The

Queen and members of the Royal Family by both horse-drawn carriage and

motor car.

The Royal Mews has a permanent display of State vehicles. These include

the magnificent Gold State Coach used for Coronations and those carriages

used for Royal and State occasions, State Visits, weddings and the State

Opening of Parliament. A State motor vehicle is also usually on display.

For much of the year visitors to the Royal Mews can also see the 30 or so

carriage-horses which play an important role in The Queen's official and

ceremonial duties.

WINDSOR CASTLE

[pic]

Windsor Castle is an official residence of The Queen and the largest

occupied castle in the world. A royal palace and fortress for over 900

years, the Castle remains a working palace today. Visitors can walk around

the State Apartments, extensive suites of rooms at the heart of the working

palace; for part of the year visitors can also see the Semi State rooms,

which are some of the most splendid interiors in the castle. They are

furnished with treasures from the Royal Collection including paintings by

Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck and Lawrence, fine tapestries and porcelain,

sculpture and armour.

Within the Castle complex there are many additional attractions. In the

Drawings Gallery regular exhibitions of treasures from the Royal Library

are mounted. Another popular feature is the Queen Mary's Dolls' House, a

miniature mansion built to perfection. The fourteenth-century St. George's

Chapel is the burial place of ten sovereigns, home of the Order of the

Garter, and setting for many royal weddings. Nearby on the Windsor Estate

is Frogmore House, an attractive country residence with strong associations

to three queens - Queen Charlotte, Queen Victoria and Queen Mary.

In celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen, a new

landscape garden has been created by the designer and Chelsea Gold

Medallist Tom Stuart-Smith. The garden, the first to be made at the Castle

since the 1820s, transforms the visitor entrance and provides a setting for

band concerts throughout the year. The informal design takes its

inspiration from Windsor's historic parkland landscape and the picturesque

character of the Castle, introduced by the architect Sir Jeffry Wyatville

for George IV in the 1820s.

FROGMORE

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Frogmore House lies in the tranquil setting of the private Home Park of

Windsor Castle. A country residence of various monarchs since the

seventeenth century, the house is especially linked to Queen Victoria. The

house and attractive gardens were one of Queen Victoria's favourite

retreats. In the gardens stands the Mausoleum where Queen Victoria and her

husband Prince Albert are buried.

THE PALACE OF HOLYROODHOUSE

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Founded as a monastery in 1128, the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh

is The Queen's official residence in Scotland. Situated at the end of the

Royal Mile, the Palace of Holyroodhouse is closely associated with

Scotland's turbulent past, including Mary, Queen of Scots, who lived here

between 1561 and 1567. Successive kings and queens have made the Palace of

Holyroodhouse the premier royal residence in Scotland. Today, the Palace is

the setting for State ceremonies and official entertaining.

BALMORAL CASTLE

[pic]

Balmoral Castle on the Balmoral Estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland is the

private residence of The Queen. Beloved by Queen Victoria and Prince

Albert, Balmoral Castle has remained a favourite residence for The Queen

and her family during the summer holiday period in August and September.

The Castle is located on the large Balmoral Estate, a working estate which

aims to protect the environment while contributing to the local economy.

The Estate grounds, gardens and the Castle Ballroom are open to visitors

from the beginning of April to the end of July each year, under the

management of the Balmoral Estate Office.

SANDRINGHAM HOUSE

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Sandringham House in Norfolk has been the private home of four

generations of Sovereigns since 1862. The Queen and other members of the

Royal family regularly spend Christmas at Sandringham and make it their

official base until February each year.

Like Balmoral, the Sandringham Estate is a commercial estate managed

privately on The Queen's behalf. Sandringham House, the museum and the

grounds are open to visitors.

ST JAMES’S PALACE

St. James's Palace is the senior Palace of the Sovereign, with a long

history as a royal residence. As the home of several members of the Royal

Family and their household offices, it is often in use for official

functions and is not open to the public.

KENSINGTON PALACE

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Kensington Palace in London is a working Royal residence. Of great

historical importance, Kensington Palace was the favourite residence of

successive sovereigns until 1760. It was also the birthplace and childhood

home of Queen Victoria. Today Kensington Palace accommodates the offices

and private apartments of a number of members of the Royal Family. Although

managed by Historic Royal Palaces, the Palace is furnished with items from

the Royal Collection.

HISTORIC RESIDENCES

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Some of the most celebrated Royal residences used by former kings and

queens can still be visited today.

The Tower of London, begun by William I, is a fascinating complex

constructed over several centuries. It provided historic Royal families

with a residence for more than five centuries, and was a prison for other

Royal figures, including Lady Jane Grey. The Tower housed the Royal Mint

until 1810. There were also armouries and workshops in which weapons were

designed and manufactured; items including armour worn by Henry VIII remain

there today. The Tower remains the storehouse of the Crown Jewels and

regalia, as it has done for nearly 700 years. Today the Tower is under the

management of the Historic Royal Palaces Trust.

Hampton Court Palace is also managed by Historic Royal Palaces. Given by

Cardinal Wolsey to Henry VIII c.1526, the palace was a residence for

figures including Mary I and Elizabeth I, Charles I, William III and Mary

II, and retains many furnishings and objects from their times. It houses

some important works of art and furnishings in the Royal Collection.

The Banqueting House in Whitehall is the only remaining part of London's

old Palace of Whitehall. It was created by Inigo Jones for James I. Charles

I commissioned Rubens to paint the vast ceiling panels, which celebrate

kingship in general and the Stuart reign in particular. It was from the

Banqueting House that Charles I stepped on to the scaffold on 30 January

1649. In 1689 the Prince and Princess of Orange went to the Banqueting

House to accept the crown, becoming joint Sovereigns William III and Mary

II. Today the Banqueting House is managed by Historic Royal Palaces.

Other historic Royal residences which can be visited include Osborne

House, the beloved home of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on the Isle of

Wight, and the Brighton Pavilion, former residence of George IV when he was

Prince Regent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thorpe, Lewis, trans., Geoffrey of Monmouth: The History of the Kings of

Britain, Penguin Books, London, 1966;

G. R. Elton, Modern Historians on British History, 1485–1945:

A Critical Bibliography, 1945–1969 (1971);

P. Catterall, British History, 1945–1987:

C. Read, Bibliography of British History: Tudor Period, 1485–1603 (2d ed.

1959, repr. 1978);

C. L. Mowat, Great Britain since 1914 (1971);

G. Davies, Bibliography of British History: Stuart Period, 1603–1714 (1928;

2d ed., ed. by M. F. Keeler, 1970);

Sir George Clark, ed., The Oxford History of England (2d ed., 16 vol.,

1937–91);

G. S. Graham, A Concise History of the British Empire (1971);

F. E. Halliday, A Concise History of England (1980);

F. M. L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1950

(1990);

Encyclopedia Britannica

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